WachterR. M.GoldmanL., “The Emerging Role of ‘Hospitalists’ in the American Health Care System,”New England Journal of Medicine335, no. 7 (1996): 514–517; HoangmaiH., “Health Care Market Trends and the Evolution of Hospitalist Use and Roles,”Journal of General Internal Medicine20, no. 2 (2005): 101–107; CroasdaleM., “Hospitalists: The Next Generation,”American Medical News (May 23–30, 2005): 13–14. See also Center for Studying Health System Change, Health Market Changes Spur Use of Hospitalists across the U.S., News Release, available at <http://www.hschange.com/CoNtENT/729/> (last visited October 2, 2008).
MalloyS. E. W., “Physician Restrictive Covenants: The Neglect of Incumbent Patient Interests,”Wake Forest Law Review41, no. 1 (2006): 189–236; LoeserD. W., “The Legal, Ethical, and Practical Implications of Noncompetition Clauses: What Physicians Should Know Before They Sign,”Journal of Law, Medicine & Ethics31, no. 2 (2003): 283–301; LowryJ. W., “Covenants Not to Compete in Physician Contracts,”Journal of Legal Medicine24, no. 2 (2003): 215–232; DioD. S., “The Legal Implications of Noncompetition Agreements in Physician Contracts,”Journal of Legal Medicine20 (1999): 457–478; WyattM. J., “Buy Out or Get Out: Why Covenants Not to Compete in Surgeon Employment Contracts Are Truly Bad Medicine,”Washburn Law Review45, no. 3 (2006): 715–740; BergP., “Judicial Enforcement of Covenants-Not-to-Compete between Physicians: Protecting Doctors‘ Interests at Patients’ Expense,”Rutgers Law Review45, no. 1 (1992): 1–48.
10.
EstlundC. L., “Between Rights and Contract: Arbitration Agreements and Non-Compete Covenants as a Hybrid Form of Employment Law,”University of Pennsylvania Law Review155, no. 2 (2006): 379–445.
11.
Restatement (Second) of Contracts § 188 (1981).
12.
American Medical Association, Opinions and Reports of the Judicial Council 25, 1960.
13.
American Medical Association, Code of Medical Ethics § 9.02 (2004). See O'HernV. M., “Physician's Covenant Not to Compete,”JAMA229, no. 2 (1974): 229, available at <http://jama.ama-assn.org/content/vol229/issue2/index.dtl> (last visited October 2, 2008).
14.
MarkelH., “Doctors Now Need Well-Honed Skills In Job Hunting,”New York Times, May 22, 2001, at F5; American Academy of Family Physicians, “More Docs Job Hunting,”Family Practice Management8, no. 4 (2001): 23; SchillerD. J., “What You Should Bargain for in a Restrictive Covenant,”Medical Economics71, no. 13 (1994): 51–52, 56–58, 61; MuroffJ. A.MuroffL. R., “Contracts in Radiology Practices: Contract Types and Key Provisions,”Journal of the American College of Radiology1, no. 7 (2004): 459–466.
15.
TokarskiC., “No Way Out: When Practice Management Firms Fail, Restrictive Covenants Can Make a Bad Situation Worse,”American Medical News (November 9, 1998): at 27.
The Federal Arbitration Act, 43 Stat. 883 (1925) (codified as amended at 9 U.S.C §§ 1–16; 201–208; 301–301 [2006]).
18.
See MaltbyL. M., “Private Justice: Employment Arbitration and Civil Rights,”Columbia Human Rights Law Review30, no. 1 (1998): 29–64.
19.
JayaV. A., “Legality and Fairness of Arbitral Awards: An Overview,”AALCO Quarterly Bulletin3, no. 3 (2006): 278–293.
20.
These developments are well document in StarrP., The Social Transformation of American Medicine: The Rise of a Sovereign Profession and the Making of a Vast Industry (New York: Basic Book, 1982).
21.
These developments are described in KinneyE., Protecting American Health Care Consumers (Durham: Duke University Press, 2002): at 23–41.
22.
Id.
23.
LeeS. D.AlexanderJ. A., “Managing Hospitals in Turbulent Times: Do Organizational Changes Improve Hospital Survival?”Health Services Research34, no. 4 (1999): 923–925; MaddenC. W., “Excess Capacity: Markets, Regulation, and Values,”Health Services Research33, no. 6 (1999): 1651–1656; ShortellS. M., “The Evolution of Hospital Systems: Unfulfilled Promises and Self-fulfilling Prophesies,”Medical Care Review45, no. 2 (1988): 177–214; FuchsV. R., “Managed Care and Merger Mania,”JAMA277, no. 11 (1997): 921–922; YavasU.ShemwellD., “Competing for Patients and Profit,”Journal of Health Care Marketing16, no. 2 (1996): 30–37; WeinerC. L., The Elusive Quest: Accountability in Hospitals (New York: Walter de Gruyter, Inc.2000).
24.
BlumJ. D., “Economic Credentialing: A New Twist in Hospital Appraisal Processes,”Journal of Legal Medicine12, no. 4 (1991): 427–475; GreeneJ., “Hospitals Eyeing Physicians' Practice Patterns. Economic Credentialing Is Being Tested to Reduce Expenses and Improve Quality,”Modern Healthcare21, no. 17 (1991): 30–31; DoerrH. L., “Economic Credentialing,”American Journal of Medical Quality7, no. 3 (1992): 91–94.
25.
See SloanF. A.HallM. A., “Market Failures and the Evolution of State Regulation of Managed Care,”Law and Contemporary Problems65, no. 4 (2002): 169–206.
26.
KopitW. G., “Price Competition in Hospital Markets: The Significance of Managed Care,”Journal of Health Law35, no. 3 (2002): 291–298.
27.
RobinsonJ. C., “Consolidation of Medical Groups into Physician Practice Management Organizations,”JAMA279, no. 2 (1998): 144–149; RobinsonJ. C.CasalinoL. P., “Vertical Integration and Organizational Networks in Health Care,”Health Affairs15, no. 1 (1996): 7–22.
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CasalinoL. P., “Physicians and Corporations: A Corporate Transformation of American Medicine?”Journal of Health Politics, Policy and Law29, nos. 4–5 (2004): 869–884; RobinsonJ. C., “The dynamics and Limits of Corporate Growth in Health Care,”Health Affairs15, no. 2 (1996): 155–169; ReinhardtU. E., “The Rise and Fall of the Physician Practice Management Industry,”Health Affairs19, no. 1 (2000): 42–55; ConradD. A.KoosS.HarneyA.HaaseM., “Physician Practice Management Organizations: Their Prospects and Performance,”Medical Care Research Review56, no. 3 (1999): 307–339; BurnsL. R.WholeyD. R., “Responding to a Consolidating Healthcare System: Options for Physician Organizations,” in BlairJ. D.FottlerM. D.SavageG. T., ed., Advances in Health Care Management (New York: Elsevier Science, 2000): 261–323; RobinsonJ. C., The Corporate Practice of Medicine: Competition and Innovation in Health Care (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1999).
29.
BodenheimerT., “The American Health Care System: Physicians and the Changing Medical Marketplace,”New England Journal of Medicine340, no. 7 (1999): 584–588.
30.
American Medical Association, Socioeconomic Characteristics of Medical Practice 1997/98, Chicago, 1998.
31.
WillcoxA. W., “Hospitals and the Corporate Practice of Medicine,”Cornell Law Quarterly45 (1960): 432–487.
32.
HuberfeldN., “Be Not Afraid of Change: Time to Eliminate the Corporate Practice of Medicine Doctrine,”Health Matrix14, no. 2 (2004): 243–288; FreimanA. M., “The Abandonment of the Antiquated Corporate Practice of Medicine Doctrine: Injecting a Dose of Efficiency into the Modern Health Care Environment,”Emory Law Journal47 (Spring 1998): 697–753; Chase-LubitzJ. F., “The Corporate Practice of Medicine Doctrine: An Anachronism in the Modern Health Care Industry,”Vanderbilt Law Review40, no. 2 (1987): 445–488.
33.
Sherman Antitrust Act, Act of July 2, 1890, ch. 647, 26 Stat. 209 (codified as amended at 15 U.S.C. § § 1–7).
34.
Goldfarb v. Virginia State Bar, 421 U.S. 773 (1975) (eliminating the learned professions exemption to the federal antitrust laws); Arizona v. Maricopa County Med. Society, 457 U.S. 332 (1982) (holding that the maximum fee agreements of a state medical society, as price-fixing agreements, are per se unlawful under § 1 of the Sherman Act). See also AMA v. United States, 130 F.2d 233 (D.C. Cir. 1942), aff'd, 317 U.S. 519 (1943) (ruling that the practice of medicine is trade or commerce within the meaning of the federal antitrust laws); AMA v. FTC, 638 F.2d 443, aff'd by an equally divided court, 455 U.S. 676 (1982).
35.
Health Care Quality Improvement Act of 1986, Public Law 99–660, title IV, § 415, 100 Stat. 3787 (codified as amended at 42 U.S.C. §§ 11111–5).
36.
GreaneyT. L., “Whither Antitrust? The Uncertain Future of Competition Law in Health Care,”Health Affairs21, no. 2 (2000): 185–196.
37.
466 U.S. 2 (1984).
38.
GaynorM.Haas-WilsonD., “Change, Consolidation, and Competition in Health Care Markets,”Journal of Economic Perspectives13, no. 1 (1999):141–164; FrechH. E.DangerK. L., “Exclusive Contracts between Hospitals and Physicians: The Antitrust Issues,”Health Economics7, no. 2 (1998): 175–178.
39.
HammackJ. M., “The Antitrust Laws and the Medical Peer Review Process,”Journal of Contempory Health Law and Policy9, (1993): 419–450; BlumsteinJ. F.SloanF. A., “Antitrust and Hospital Peer Review,”Law & Contemporary Problems51, no. 2 (1988): 7–91; HavighurstC. C., “Professional Peer Review and the Antitrust Laws,”Case Western Reserve University Law Review36 (1986): 1117–1169.
40.
Health Care Quality Improvement Act of 1986, Public Law 99–660, title IV, § 415, 100 Stat. 3787 (codified as amended at 42 U.S.C. §§ 11111–5).
41.
42 U.S.C. § 11112(a).
42.
See, e.g., Gordon v. Lewistown Hospital, 423 F.3d 184 (3d Cir. 2005), cert. denied, 126 S. Ct. 1777, 164 L. Ed. 2d 557 (U.S. 2006); Chalal v. Northwest Med. Center, Inc., 147 F. Supp. 2d 1160, 1170 (N.D. Ala. 2000), aff'd without opinion, 250 F.3d 749 (11th Cir. 2001); Brader v. Allegheny General Hospital, 167 F.3d 832 (3d Cir. 1999). See, e.g., MilesJ., “Practitioner Credentialing Based on Peer Review,” in Health Care and Antitrust Law, vol. 2 (Thomson West, 2007): At 10:8.
43.
42 U.S.C. § 11112(b).
44.
Patrick v. Burget (D. Ore. 1985), rev'd 800 F.2d 1498, rev'd, 486 U.S. 1988) (reinstating the treble damage award and denying state action immunity to the peer review proceedings).
45.
IglehartJ. K., “Congress Moves to Bolster Peer Review: The Health Care Quality Improvement Act of 1986,”New England Journal of Medicine31, no. 15 (1987): 960–965.
46.
Id.
47.
42 U.S.C. §§ 11131–53.
48.
ChalifouxR. F., “So What Is Sham Peer Review?”Medscape General Medicine7, no. 4 (2005): 47, available at <http://medgenmed.medscape.com/viewarticle/515862> (last visited May 4, 2006; access restricted); JohnsonW. N., “Shammed I Am in Peer Review: Due Process Does Not Apply for Physicians Facing Sham Peer Review,”General Surgery News, 2004, available at <http://www.semmelweis.org/Acrobat/article_sham%20i%20am.pdf> (last visited May 4, 2006); WaiteV. S., “Sham Peer Review: Napoleonic Law in Medicine,”Journal of American & Physicians8, no. 3 (2003): 83–86, available at <http://www.semmelweis.org/Acrobat/article_waite_napoleonic.pdf> (last visited October 2, 2008); TownendD., “Hospital Peer Review is a Kangaroo Court,”Medical Economics77, no. 3 (2000): 133.
49.
TwedtS., “The Cost of Courage: How the Tables Turn on Doctors,”Pittsburgh Post-Gazette, October 26, 2003, available at <www.postgazette.com/pg/03299/234499.stm> (last visited October 2, 2008) (the first in a series of articles on different occasions of so-called sham peer review and actions against “disruptive” physicians around the country).
50.
ChuJ., “Peer Review: Doctors Who Hurt Doctors,”Time Magazine, August 15, 2005, at 52.
51.
ParmleyW. W., “Clinical Peer Review or Competitive Hatchet Job,”Journal of American College of Cardiology36, no. 7 (2000): 2347.
52.
See Poliner v. Texas Health Systems, 2004 WL 1542164. (N.D.Tex., July 7, 2004), rev'd, No. 06–11235 (5th Cir. Jul. 23, 2008). See “Jury Awards $366 Million in Damages to Physician in Peer Review Case,”Bureau National Affairs13, no. 38 (2004): 1378–1379; CroasdaleM., “Defamation Award Could Chill Peer Review: A Dallas Cardiologist Won $366 Million in a Lawsuit Claiming a Peer Review Panel Intentionally Ruined His Career,”American Medical News (October 4, 2004), available at <http://www.ama-assn.org/amednews/2004/10/04/prsd1004.htm> (last visited October 2, 2008); TwedtS., “Doctor Who Voiced Protest Wins $4.3 Million Judgment,”Pittsburgh Post-Gazette, June 24, 2004, available at <http://www.peerreview.org/whistleblowers/6242004postgaz.pdf> (last visited October 2, 2008); Clark v. Columbia/HCA Information Services, Inc., 25 P.3d 215, 218 (Nev. 2001). See SmithS. M., “Construction and Application of Health Care Quality Improvement Act of 1986 (42 U.S.C.A. § 11101–11152),”American Law Reports, Federal121, (1994): 255–330.
53.
SilvermanW. A., “Commentary, Restraining the Unsustainable,”Pediatrics111, no. 3 (2003): 672–674.
54.
BehrmanR. E.ButlerA. S., ed., Preterm Birth: Causes, Consequences, and Prevention, Institute of Medicine, Committee on Understanding Premature Birth and Assuring Healthy Outcomes, 2006; Institute of Medicine, Preterm Birth: Causes, Consequences, and Prevention (Executive Summary), 2006, available at <http://www.nap.edu/catalog/11622.html> (last visited October 2, 2008).
MartinJ. A., “Births: Final Data for 2003,”National Vital Statistics Reports54, no. 2 (2005): 1–116.
57.
See RichardsonD. K., “A Critical Review of Cost Reduction in Neonatal Intensive Care. I. The Structure of Costs,”Journal of Perinatology21, no. 2 (2001): 107–115; RichardsonD. K., “A Critical Review of Cost Reduction in Neonatal Intensive Care. II. Strategies for Reduction,”Journal of Perinatology21, no. 2 (2001): 121–127; BoyleM. H., “Economic Evaluation of Neonatal Intensive Care of Very-Low-Birth-Weight Infants,”New England Journal of Medicine308, no. 22 (1983): 1330–1337
58.
See BehrmanButler, supra note 54.
59.
Id.
60.
WinslowR., “Infant Health Problems Cost Business Billions,”Wall Street Journal, May 5, 1992, at B1.
61.
JobeA. H., “Predictors of Outcomes in Preterm Infants: Which Ones and When?”Journal of Pediatrics138, no. 2 (2001): 153–156.
62.
LantosJ. D., The Lazarus Case: Life-and-Death Issues in Neonatal Intensive Care (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 2001); SayeedS. A., “The Marginally Viable Newborn: Legal Challenges, Conceptual Inadequacies, and Reasonableness,”Journal of Law, Medicine & Ethics34, no. 3 (2006): 600–681; GundermanR. B.EngleW. A., “Ethics and the Limits of Neonatal Viability,”Radiology236, no. 2 (2005): 427–429.
63.
WilkinsonD. J., “Death in the Neonatal Intensive Care Unit: Changing Patterns Of End of Life Care over Two Decades,”Archives of the Disabled Child: Fetal Neonatal Edition91, no. 4 (2006): F268–F271; HentschelR., “Restriction of Ongoing Intensive Care in Neonates: A Prospective Study,”Pediatrics118, no. 2 (2006): 563–569; BastekT. K., “Prenatal Consultation Practices at the Border of Viability: A Regional Survey,”Pediatrics116, no. 2 (2005): 407–413; SinghJ.LantosJ.MeadowW., “End-of-Life After Birth: Death and Dying in a Neonatal Intensive Care Unit,”Pediatrics114, no. 6 (2004): 1620–1626; RoyR., “Decision Making and Modes of Death in a Tertiary Neonatal Unit,”Archives of the Disabled Child: Fetal Neonatal Edition89, no. 6 (2004): F527–F530; HorbarJ. D., “Trends in Mortality and Morbidity for Very Low Birth Weight Infants, 1991–1999,”Pediatrics110, no. 1 (2002): 143–151; PierucciR. L.KirbyR. S.LeuthnerS. R., “End-of-Life Care for Neonates and Infants: The Experience and Effects of a Palliative Care Consultation Service,”Pediatrics108, no. 3 (2001): 653–660; DoronM. W., “Delivery Room Resuscitation Decisions for Extremely Premature Infants,”Pediatrics102, no. 3 (1998): 574–582; WallS. N.PartridgeJ. C., “Death in the Intensive Care Nursery: Physician Practice of Withdrawing and Withholding Life Support,”Pediatrics99, no. 1 (1997): 64–70.
64.
AdamsE. K., “Costs of Poor Birth Outcomes among Privately Insured,”Journal of Health Care Finance29, no. 3 (2003): 11–27.
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H. MacDonald and Committee on Fetus and Newborn, “Perinatal Care at the Threshold of Viability,”Pediatrics110, no. 5 (2002): 1024–1027.
66.
St. JohnE. B., “Cost of Neonatal Care According to Gestational Age at Birth and Survival Status,”American Journal of Obstetrics & Gynecology182, Pt. 1 (2000): 170–175; RogowskiJ., “Measuring the Cost of Neonatal and Perinatal Care,”Pediatrics103, no. 3 (1999): e329–335; McCormickM. C., “Commentary: The Outcomes of Very Low Birth Weight Infants: Are We Asking the Right Questions?”Pediatrics99, no. 1 (1997): 869–875.
Kaiser Family Foundation, State Health Facts: Births Financed by Medicaid as a Percent of Total Births, 2002, available at <http://www.statehealthfacts.org/comparemaptable.jsp?ind=223&cat=4#footnote5> (last visited October 2, 2008); SchulmanM., “Neonatology and Emerging Trends in Health Insurance,”American Journal of Perinatology20, no. 8 (2003): 433–439.
69.
StreinerD. L., “Attitudes of Parents and Health Care Professionals toward Active Treatment of Extremely Premature Infants,”Pediatrics108, no. 1 (2001): 152–157.
70.
SilvermanW. A., “Commentary, Restraining the Unsustainable,”Pediatrics111, no. 3 (2003): 672–674. See also CulverG., Letter to the Editor, “Informed Decisions for Extremely Low-Birth-Weight Infants,”JAMA283, no. 24 (2000): 3201.
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GoodmanD. C., “Are Neonatal Intensive Care Resources Located According to Need? Regional Variation in Neonatologists, Beds, and Low Birth Weight Newborns,”Pediatrics108, no. 2 (2001) 426–431; PollackL. D.RatnerI. M.LundG. C., “United States Neonatology Practice Survey: Personnel, Practice, Hospital, and Neonatal Intensive Care Unit Characteristics,”Pediatrics101, no. 3 (1998): 398–405; GliedS. A.GnanasekaranS., “Hospital Financing and Neonatal Intensive Care,”Health Services Research31, no. 5 (December 1996): 593–607.
72.
GoodmanD. C., “The Relation between the Availability of Neonatal Intensive Care and Neonatal Mortality,”New England Journal of Medicine346, no. 20 (2002): 1538–1544.
73.
See SilvermanW. A., “Compassion or Opportunism?”Pediatrics113, no. 2 (2004): 402–403; see also WhitfieldJ., “Compassion or Opportunism?”Pediatrics114, no. 5 (2004): 1371–1372; LorenzJ. M., “Compassion and Perplexity,”Pediatrics113, no. 2 (2004): 403–404.
74.
ThompsonL. A.GoodmanD. C.LittleG. A., “Is More Neonatal Intensive Care Always Better? Insights from a Cross-National Comparison of Reproductive Care,”Pediatrics109, no. 6 (2002): 1036–1043; TanneJ. H., “High Level of Resources for Neonatal Intensive Care Does Not Give US Better Outcomes,”BMJ324, no. 7350 (2002): 1353.
75.
LorenzJ. M., “Comparison of Management Strategies for Extreme Prematurity in New Jersey and The Netherlands: Outcomes and Resource Expenditures,”Pediatrics108, no. 6 (2001): 1269–1274.
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81.
Contracts also contain covenants requiring resignation-of-hospital privileges and medical staff membership within 24 hours at all hospitals and other facilities at which Pediatrix provides services.
National Association of Attorneys General, Physicians Management Groups: Nevada, 2001-OCT NAAG Medicaid Fraud Report, October 2001, at 12; Company News, “Pediatrix Medical Says Nevada Is Investigating Billing,”New York Times, November 21, 2003, at C4; “Pediatrix to Pay $25.1M to Settle Government Allegations,”South Florida Business Journal, Februay 8, 2006, available at <http://southflorida.bizjournals.com/southflorida/stories/2006/02/06/daily32.html> (last visited October 2, 2008); “A Sick Business,”The Economist (U.S. Edition), June 28, 2003.
84.
See Starr, supra note 20.
85.
Id., at 449.
86.
See Kinney, supra note 21.
87.
Editorial, “Extreme Risk — The New Corporate Proposition for Physicians,”New England Journal of Medicine333, no. 25 (1995): 1706–1708.
88.
SageW. M., “Physicians as Advocates,”Houston Law Review73, no. 5 (2000): 1529–1630.
89.
KinneyE., “Hospital Peer Review of Physicians: Does Statutory Immunity Increase Risk of Unwarranted Professional Injury?”Michigan State Journal of Law and Medicine (forthcoming 2008).
90.
DeNavas-WaltC.ProctorB. D.SmithJ., Income, Poverty, and Health Insurance Coverage in the United States: 2006, U.S. Census, Consumer Population Reports, August 2007, at 21 (Figure 7).
91.
See Catlin, “National Health Spending In 2006: A Year of Change for Prescription Drugs,”Health Affairs27 (2008): 14–29.