BrandtA., No Magic Bullet: A Social History of Venereal Disease in the United States Since 1880 (New York: Oxford University Press, 1985).
3.
Institute of Medicine, The Future of Public Health (Washington, D.C.: The National Academy Press, 1988).
4.
Id., 20.
5.
JonsenA., The Birth of Bioethics (New York: Oxford University Press, 1998); WalterJ. K.KleinE. P., The Story of Bioethics: From Seminal Works to Contemporary Exploration (Washington, DC: Georgetown University Press, 2003).
6.
FadenR. R., “Ethical Issues in Government Sponsored Public Health Campaigns,”Health Education Quarterly14, no. 1 (1987): 27–37; PellegrinoE. D., “Health Promotion as Public Policy: The Need for Moral Groundings,”Preventive Medicine10 (1981): 371–378; WiklerD. I.“Coercive Measures in Health Promotion: Can They be Justified?”Health Education Monographs6, no. 2 (1978): 223–241; FadenR. R.FadenA. I.“The Ethics of Health Education as Public Policy,”Health Education Monographs6, no. 2 (1978): 180–197.
7.
WiklerD. I., “Persuasion and Coercion for Health,”Milbank Memorial Fund Quarterly56 (1978): 303–333.
8.
WiklerD. I.“Coercive Measures in Health Promotion: Can They be Justified?”Health Education Monographs6, no. 2 (1978): 223–241.
9.
RussellL. B., Is Prevention Better than Cure? (Washington DC: Brookings Institution, 1986).
10.
PellegrinoE. D.“Health Promotion as Public Policy: The Need for Moral Groundings,”Preventive Medicine10 (1981): 371–378.
11.
FadenR. R.FadenA. I.“The Ethics of Health Education as Public Policy,”Health Education Monographs6, no. 2 (1978): 180–197.
12.
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13.
GlanzK.LewisF.M.RimerB.K., (Eds.) Health Behavior and Health Education: Theory, Research and Practice (2nd Ed.) (San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass, 1997); RoterD.L.HallJ.A.MeriscaR.RuehleB.CretinD.SvarstadB., “Effectiveness of Interventioas to Improve Patient Compliance: A Meta-Analysis,”Medical Care36 (1998); 1138–1161.
14.
FadenR. R., “Ethical Issues in Government Sponsored Public Health Campaigns,”Health Education Quarterly14, no. 1 (1987): 27–37.
15.
PellegrinoE. D., “Health Promotion as Public Policy: The Need for Moral Groundings,”Preventive Medicine10 (1981): 371–378.
16.
BeauchampD. E., “Alcoholism as Blaming the Alcoholic,”International Journal of Addiction11 (1976): 41–52.
17.
WiklerD. I., “Persuasion and Coercion for Health,”Milbank Memorial Fund Quarterly/Health and Society'56 (1978): 303–333.
18.
Note that this section and the following section are drawn considerably from a previous work, viz., FadenR. R.KassN.E., “Bioethics and Public Health in the 1980s: Resource Allocation and AIDS,”Annual Reviews of Public Health12 (1991): 335–360.
19.
DanielsN., “Health-Care Needs and Distributive Justice.”Philosophy and Public Affairs10, no. 2 (1981): 146–79-; BeauchampT. L.FadenR. R.“The Right to Health and the Right to Health Care.”Journal of Medicine and Philosophy4, no. 2 (1979): 118–131; FriedC., “Equality and Rights in Medical Care,”Hastings Center Reports, no. 1 (1976): 29–34; FriedC., “Rights in Health Care—Beyond Equity and Efficiency,”New England Journal of Medicine293, no. 5 (1975): 241–245; EngelhardtH. T., “Rights to Health Care, Social Justice, and Fairness in Healthcare Allocations,” in Foundation of Bioethics (New York: Oxford University Press, 1986); MenzelP.T., Medical Costs, Moral Choices: A Philosophy of Health Care Economics in America (New Haven, Conn: Yale University Press, 1983).
20.
President's Commission for the Study of Ethical Problems in Medicine and Biomedical and Behavioral Research, Securing Access to Health Care: The Ethical Implications of Differences in the Availability of Health Services, Vol. 1 (Washington, DC: Government Printing Office, 1983).
21.
BeauchampT. L.FadenR. R., “The Right to Health and the Right to Health Care,”The Journal of Medicine and Philosophy A, no. 2 (1979): 118–131.
22.
GreenR. M., “The Priority of Health Care,”Journal of Medical Philosophy, no. 4 (1983): 373–380; DanielsN., Just Health Care (New York: Cambridge, 1985); GibbardA., “The Prospective Pareto Principle and Equity of Access to Health Care,”Milbank Memorial Fund Quarterly60, no. 3 (1982): 399–428; BrodyB., “Health Care for the Haves and Have Nots: Toward a Just Basis of Distribution,” in ShelpE.E., ed., Justice and Health Care (Boston: Reidel, 1981): 151–159; BuchananA. E., “The Right to a Decent Minimum of Health Care,”Philosophy and Public Affairs13, no. 1 (1984): 55–78; WalzerM., Spheres of Justice (New York: Basic Books, 1983).
23.
BlankR.H., Rationing Medicine (New York: Columbia University Press, 1988); CallahanD., “Meeting Needs and Rationing Care,”Law, Medicine and Health Care16, no. 3–4 (1988): 261–66; ChurchillL., Rationing Health Care in America (Notre Dame, Ind: University of Notre Dame Press, 1987); PellegrinoE.D., “Rationing Health Care: The Ethics of Medical Gatekeeping,” in MonagleJ.F.ThomasmaD.C., ed., Medical Ethics: A Guide for Health Professionals (Rockville, MD: Aspen, 1988): 261–270; WinslowG.R., “Rationing and Publicity,” in: AgichG.J.BegleyC.E., eds., The Price of Health (Boston: Reidel, 1986): 199–215.
24.
CallahanD.Setting Limits: Medical Goals in an Aging Society (New York: Touchstone Books, 1988); DanielsN., Am I My Parent's Keeper? An Essay on Justice Between the Young and Old (New York: Oxford University Press, 1990).
25.
PellegrinoE. C.ThomasmaD. C., For the Patient's Own Good (New York: Oxford University Press, 1988).
26.
President's Commission for the Study of Ethical Problems in Medicine and Biomedical Behavioral Research, Securing Access to Health Care: The Ethical Implications of Differences in the Availability of Health Services, Vol. 1 (Washington, DC: GPO, 1983); ChurchillL., Rationing Health Care in America (Notre Dame, Ind: University of Notre Dame Press, 1987).
27.
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28.
BayerR., “Gays and the Stigma of Bad Blood,”Hastings Center Report13 (1983): 5–7.
29.
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30.
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31.
GostinL.CurranW.J., “The Limit of Compulsion on Controlling AIDS,”Hastings Center Report16 (Suppl.) (1986): 24–29; KoopC.E., “Surgeon Generals report on Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndrome,”Journal of the American Medical Association256 (1986): 278–89; MacklinR., “Predicting Dangerousness and Public Health Response to AIDS,”Hastings Center Report16 (Suppl.) (1986): 16–23; MustoD.F., “Quarantine and the Problem of AIDS,”Milbank Memorial Fund Quarterly64 (Suppl.) (1986): 113; PorterR., “History Says No to the Policeman's Response to AIDS,”British Medical Journal293 (1986): 1589–90.
32.
WilsonJ.M.G.JungnerF., “Principles and Practice of Screening for Disease,”Public Health Papers34 (Geneva: WHO1968); CochraneA.L.HolandW.W., “Validation of Screening Procedures,”British Medical Bulletin27 (1971): 3–8; WhitbyL.G., “Screening for Disease: Definitions and Criteria,”Lancet7884 (1974): 819–822.
33.
BayerR., “Ethical and Social Policy Issues Raised by HIV Screening: The Epidemic Evolves and So Do the Challenges,”AIDS3 (1989): 119–24; BayerR.LevineC.WolfS.M., “HIV Antibody Screening: An Ethical Framework for Evaluating Proposed Programs,”Journal of the American Medical Association256 (1986): 1768–74; GostinL.CurranW.J., “Legal Control Measures for AIDS: Reporting Requirements, Surveillance, Quarantine, and Regulation of Public Meeting Places,”American Journal of Public Health77 (1987): 214–218; GostinL.CurranW.J.ClarkM.E., “The Case Against Compulsory Casefinding in Controlling AIDS—Testing, Screening and Reporting,”American Journal of Law and Medicine12 (1987): 7–53; HunterN.D., “AIDS Prevention and Civil Liberties: The False Security of Mandatory Testing,”AIDS Public Policy Journal2 (1987): 1–10; ChildressJ.F., “An Ethical Framework for Assessing Policies to Screen for Antibodies for HIV,”AIDS Public Policy Journal2 (1987): 28–31.
34.
CoatesT.J.StallR.D.KegelesS.M.LoB.MorinS.F.McKusicL.“AIDS Antibody Testing,”American Psychology43 (1988): 859–64; DollL.S.DarrowW.O'MalleyP.BodeckerT.JaffeH., “Self-reported Behavioral Change in Homosexual Men in the San Francisco City Clinic Cohort,”Presented at International AIDS Conference, 3rd, Washington, DC.; McCuskerJ.StoddardA.M.MayerK.H.ZapkaJ.MorrisonC.SalzmanS.P., “Effects of HIV Antibody Test Knowledge on Subsequent Sexual Behaviors in a Cohort of Homosexually Active Men,”American Journal of Public Health78 (1988): 462–67; Van GriesvenG.J.P.De VroomeE.M.M.TielmanR.A.P.GoudsmitJ.Van Der NoordaaJ.“Impact of HIV Antibody Testing on Changes in Sexual Behavior Among Homosexual Men in the Netherlands,”American Journal of Public Health79 (1988): 1575–77.
35.
FoxR.OdakaN.J.BrookmeyerR.PolkB.F., “Effect of HIV Antibody Disclosure on Subsequent Sexual Activity in Homosexual Men,”AIDS1 (1987): 241–46.
36.
BeauchampT. L.ChildressJ. L., Principles of Biomedical Ethics (New York: Oxford University Press, 1979).
37.
CallahanD., “Autonomy: A Moral Good, Not a Moral Obsession,”The Hastings Center Report14, no. 5 (1984): 40–42; SteinbockD., “Liberty, Responsibility, and the Common Good,”The Hastings Center Report26, no. 6 (1996): 45–47; PellegrinoE.ThomasmaD. C., For the Patient's Good: The Restoration of Beneficence in Health Care (New York: Oxford University Press, 1988).
38.
BeauchampD. E., “Public Health as Social Justice,”Inquiry13 (1976): 1–14; BeauchampD. E., “Community: The Neglected Tradition of Public Health,”The Hastings Center Report15 (1985): 28–36.
39.
Id.
40.
BeauchampD., 1985supra note 38.
41.
LappeM., “Ethics and Public Health,” in LastJ.M., ed., Maxcy-Rosenau Public Health and Preventive Medicine, Twelfth Ed. (Norwalk, Connecticut: Appleton-Century-Crofts, 1986): 1867–1877. Note that the 11th edition of the same text book (1980) had a chapter entitled “Legal and Ethical Issues in Public Health” by Sidney Shindell. The bulk of this chapter is devoted to legal issues in public health, however, rather than ethics issues, and thus is not discussed here.
42.
During this period, there were numerous important contributions to ethics and epidemiology as well. These are not described in the main body of this work, however, as they relate to the large body of scholarship on research ethics than they do to defining an ethics of public health. Examples of such literature include GordisL.GoldE.SeltserR., “Privacy Protection in Epidemiologic and Medical Research: A Challenge and A Responsibility,”American Journal of Epidemiology105 (1977): 163–168; WeedD. L., “The Merger of Bioethics and Epidemiology,”Journal of Clinical Epidemiology44, Suppl. I (1991): 15S–22S.; BeauchampT. L., “Ethical Theory and Epidemiology,”Journal of Clinical Epidemiology44, Suppl. I (1991): 5S–8S.
43.
KassN. E., “An Ethics Framework for Public Health,”American Journal of Public Health91 (2001): 1776–1782; CallahanD.JenningsB.“Ethics and Public Health: Forging a Strong Relationship,”American Journal of Public Health92, no. 2 (2002): 169–176; ChildressJ. F.FadenR. R.GaareR. D.GostinL. O.KahnJ.BonnieR. J.KassN. E.MastroianniA. C.MorenoJ. D.NieburgP., “Public Health Ethics: Mapping the Terrain,”Journal of Law, Medicine, and Ethics30 (2002): 170–178.; RobertsM. J.ReichM. R., “Ethical Analysis in Public Health,”The Lancet359 (2002): 1055–1059.
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46.
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47.
Roberts and Reich similarly suggested that public health professionals need more training in ethical analysis and applied philosophy. RobertsM.J.ReichM.R.Mr, “Ethical Analysis in Public Health,”Lancet359, no 9311 (2002): 1055–59.
48.
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SingerP., One World: The Ethics of Globalization (New Haven: Yale University Press, 2002); By contrast, Ilona Kickbush notes that focusing arguments to reduce global poverty on self-interest may be strategic in the short run, but will not be as effective in the long run. It has been argued that the United States should commit funds to global public health in order to save the millions of dollars associated with global diseases increasingly affecting Americans, or the costs of global social unrest, terrorism, and violence borne out of poverty and poor health. Justifying aid this way, Kickbush suggests, has resulted in the United States moving out of multilateral public health and aid efforts and “reinforcing global unilateralism at a time when many of the health issues require a truly global response and the cooperation of many actors”. KickbushI., “Influence and Opportunity: Reflections on the U.S. Role in Global Public Health,”Health Affairs Nov./Dec. (2002): 131–141.
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