Commentary: A Critique of Clark's Frightening Xenotransplantation Scenario

Clark M.A. , “This Little Piggy Went to Market: The Xenotransplantation and Xenozoonose Debate,” Journal of Law, Medicine & Ethics, 27 (1999): 137–52.

Id. at 137.

See id. at 138, 143, 139, 144.

See Platt J.L. , “New Directions for Organ Transplantation,” Nature, 392, Supp. (1998): A11–A17; and Weiss R.A. , “Science, Medicine, and the Future: Xenotransplantation,” British Medical Journal, 317 (1998): 931–32.

See Clark , supra note 1, at 138.

See Ranjit J. Artrip J.H. Michler R.E. , “Genetically Engineered Organs,” Advances in Cardiac Surgery, 10 (1998): 229–44.

See Vanderpool H.Y. , “Critical Ethical Issues in Clinical Trials with Xenotransplants,” Lancet, 351 (1998): 1347–50.

See Chapman L.E. , “Xenotransplantation and Xenogeneic Infections,” N. Engl. J. Med., 333 (1995): 1498–501.

See Allan J.S. , “Xenograft Transplantation and the Infectious Disease Conundrum,” ILAR Journal, 37 (1995): 37–48; Weigler B.J. , “Biology of B Virus in Macaque and Human Hosts: A Review,” Clinical Infectious Disease, 14 (1992): 55–67; Heneine W , “Identification of a Human Population Infected with Simian Foamy Viruses,” Nature Medicine, 4 (1998): 403–07; and “Guidance for Industry: Public Health Issues Posed by the Use of Nonhuman Primate Xenografts in Humans,” 64 Fed. Reg. 16,743–44 (1999).

64 Fed. Reg. 16,743–44.

See Le Tissier P. , “Two Sets of Human-Trophic Pig Retrovirus,” Nature, 389 (1997): 681–82; and Patience C. Takeuchi Y. Weiss R.A. , “Infection of Human Cells by an Endogenous Retrovirus of Pigs,” Nature Medicine, 3 (1997): 282–86.

See Letter from Risso S.T. , “FDA Letter to Sponsors of Porcine Xenograft” (Oct. 16, 1997).

See Heneine W. , “No Evidence of Infection with Porcine Endogenous Retrovirus in Recipients of Porcine Islet-Cell Xenografts,” Lancet, 352 (1998): 695–99; and Patience C. , “No Evidence of Pig DNA or Retroviral Infection in Patients with Short-Term Extracorporeal Connection to Pig Kidneys,” Lancet, 352 (1998): 699–701.

See Martin U. , “Expression of Pig Endogenous Retrovirus by Primary Porcine Endothelial Cells and Infection of Human Cells,” Lancet, 352 (1998): 692–94; and Martin U. , “Porcine Endogenous Retrovirus (PERV) Was Not Transmitted from Transplanted Porcine Endothelial Cells to Baboons In Vivo,” Transplantation International, 11 (1998): 247–51.

See Clark , supra note 1, at 145.

See Committee on Xenograft Transplantation Ethical Issues and Public Policy, Institute of Medicine, Xenotransplantation: Science, Ethics, and Public Policy (Washington, D.C.: National Academy Press, 1996) [hereinafter Institute of Medicine]; and Nuffield Council on Bioethics, Animal-to-Human Transplants: The Ethics of Xenotransplantation (London: Nuffield Council on Bioethics, 1996).

See Vanderpool , supra note 7; Institute of Medicine, supra note 16; and McCarthy C.R. , “Ethical Aspects of Animal-to-Human Xenografts,” ILAR Journal, 37 (1995): 3–9.

See Clark , supra note 1, at 148.

See id. at 144.

See Zaner R.M. , “Surprise! You're Just Like Me?: Reflections on Cloning, Eugenics, and Other Utopias,” in Humber J.M. Almeder R.F. , eds., Human Cloning (Totowa: Humana Press, 1998): 105–51.

See Clark , supra note 1, at 141.

See Caplan A.L. , “Is Xenografting Morally Wrong?,” Transplantation Proceedings, 24 (1992): 722–27.

See Buckle S. , “Natural Law,” in Singer P. , ed., A Companion to Ethics (Oxford: Basil Blackwell, 1993): 161–74.

Id. at 172.

See Nuffield Council on Bioethics, supra note 16; and Veatch R.M. , “The Ethics of Xenografts,” Transplantation Proceedings, 3 (1986): 93–97.

See Clark , supra note 1, at 137.

Id. at 148.

See Ranjit Artrip Michler , supra note 6.

See Weiss , supra note 4.

See Ranjit Artrip Michler , supra note 6.

See Institute of Medicine, supra note 16, at 57–61.

Id. at 71.

See Platt , supra note 4; and Dorling A. , “Clinical Xenotransplantation of Solid Organs,” Lancet, 349 (1997): 867–75.