NelsonL.J.MillikenN.M., “Compelled Medical Treatment of Pregnant Women,”JAMA, 25 (1988): 1060–66; and WilliamsW.W., “Firing the Woman to Protect the Fetus: The Reconciliation of Fetal Protection with Employment Opportunity Goals Under Title VII Williams,”Georgetown Law Journal, 69, no. 3 (1991): 641–704.
2.
Title VII of the Civil Rights Act of 1964, as amended, 42 U.S.C. § 2000e, et seq.; and Pregnancy Discrimination Act, 42 U.S.C. § 2000e(k).
3.
Webster v. Reproductive Health Services, BlackmunJ., dissenting, 109 U.S. 3040, 3049 (1989).
4.
Institute of Medicine, Prenatal Care (Washington, D.C.: National Academy Press, 1988).
5.
BreitbartV.ChavkinW.WiseP., “Finding Common Ground: Developing a New Agenda for Maternal-Child Health,” presentation to American Public Health Association (1993).
6.
KempeA.WiseP.H.BarkanS.E., “Clinical Determinants of the Racial Disparity in Very Low Birthweight,”New England Journal of Medicine, 327 (1992): 969–73.
7.
HaasJ.S.UdvarhelyS.MorrisC.N.EpsteinA.M., “The Effect of Providing Health Coverage to Poor Uninsured Pregnant Women in Massachusetts,”JAMA, 269 (1993): 87–91.
8.
BarnoY.HigginsonG.LongchampE., “Infant Deaths in Central Harlem,” presentation to American Public Health Association (1988).
9.
CoustanD.R.CarpenterM.W.SullivanP.S., “Gestational Diabetes: Predictors of Subsequent Disordered Glucose Metabolism,”American Journal of Obstetrics and Gynecology, 168 (1993): 1139–45.
10.
Committee to Study the Prevention of Low Birthweight, Preventing Low Birthweight (Washington, D.C.: National Academy Press, 1985).
11.
JamesenD.J.BuescherP.A., “The Effect of Family Planning Participation on Prenatal Care Use and Low Birthweight,”Family Planning Perspectives, 24 (1992): 214–18.
12.
CormanH.GrossmanM., “Determinants of Neonatal Mortality Rates in the US: A Reduced Form Model,”Journal of Health Economics, 15 (1985): 235–48; and MillerM.K.StokesC.S.WarlandR.M., “The Effect of Legalization and Public Funding of Abortion on Neonatal Mortality: An Intervention Analysis,”Population Research Policy Review, (1988): 79–92.
13.
KaunitzA.M.BrewerJ.L.ParyaniS.G., “Prenatal Care and HIV Screening,”JAMA, 258 (1987): 2693.
14.
GrimesD.H., “The CDC and Abortion in HIV Positive Women,”JAMA, 299 (1988): 217.
15.
MinkoffH.L.LandesmanS.H., “The Case for Routinely Offering Prenatal Testing for Human Immunodeficiency Virus,”American Journal of Obstetrics and Gynecology, 159 (1988): 793–96.
16.
RutherfordG.W.OlivaG.E.GrossmanM., “Pregnancy Outcome in Women with HIV Infection in Puerto Rico,” Montreal, 5th International Conference on AIDS, Abstract No. MBP 27, June 1989).
17.
KrasinskiK.BurkowskyW.BebenrothD., “Failure of Voluntary Testing for HIV to Identify Infected Parturient Women in a High Risk Population,”New England Journal of Medicine, 318 (1988): 185–89.
18.
Women, AIDS, and Public Health Policies (Washington D.C.: National Women's Health Network, 1990).
19.
PearlM.BahzhafM.LegerA.LongI., “Women in U.S. Government Clinical Trials,”Amsterdam, 8th International Conference on AIDS, Abstract No. PUB 3866, July 1992.
20.
Centers for Disease Control, “Guidelines for Prophylaxis Against Pneumocystis Carinii Pneumonia for Persons Infected with Human Immunodeficiency Virus,”Morbidity and Mortality Weekly Report, 28, 5, Supp. (1989): 1–9.
21.
Food and Drug Administration, “Guidelines for the Study and Evaluation of Gender Differences in the Clinical Evaluation of Drugs,”Federal Register, 58, no. 139 (1993): 39406–16.
22.
Bill A6747, New York State Assembly, 1993–1994 sess. (March 30, 1993).
23.
ChavkinW., Letter to Editor: “Pneumocysitis Carinii Pneumonia in Children with Perinatally Acquired HIV Infection,”JAMA, 271, no. 2 (1994): 102–03.
24.
GelberR.D.KiselevP., Executive Summary of ACTG 076: A Phase III Randomized, Placebo-Controlled Trial to Evaluate the Efficacy, Safety and Tolerance of Zidovudine (ZDV) for The Prevention of Maternal-Fetal HIV Transmission (Boston: Statistical and Data Analysis Center, Harvard University, February 17, 1994).
25.
MoyeJ., “Brief Review of Current Clinical Trials that May Resolve Uncertainties About the Reduction of Vertical Transmission of HIV,”Department of Health and Human Services, National Institutes of Health Memo (Bethesda: DHHS, April 6, 1994).
26.
U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, “The 1993 Sexually Transmitted Diseases Treatment Guidelines,”Morbidity and Mortality Weekly Report, 16, no. RR-14 (1993): 16.
27.
“Recommendations of the U.S. Public Health Service Task Force on the Use of Zidovudine to Reduce Perinatal Transmission of Human Immunodeficiency Virus,”Morbidity and Mortality Weekly Report, 43, no. RR-11 (1994): 1–20.
28.
PaltrowL., Overview of Opinion and Orders of Criminal Cases Based on Prenatal Conduct and Sentencing Based on Pregnancy Status (New York: The Center for Reproductive Law and Policy, November 1992).
29.
American College of Obstetricians and Gynecologists, Fact Sheet: State Laws on Pregnant Women and Substance Abuse (Washington D.C.: Government Relations Department, 1991); and MarshallA.B., “Update: Perinatal Addiction Research and Education,”1992 Legislative Review (October 1992).
30.
ChavkinW., “Drug Addiction and Pregnancy: Policy Crossroads,”American Journal of Public Health, 45 (1990): 55–57.
31.
See American College of Obstetricians and Gynecologists, supra note 29.
32.
ChasnoffI.J.LandressH.BarettM., “The Prevalence of illicit-Drug or Alcohol Use During Pregnancy and Discrepancies in Mandatory Reporting in Pinellas County, Florida,”New England Journal of Medicine, 320 (1989): 762–68.
33.
Drug-Exposed Infants: A Generation at Risk. Report to the Chairman Committee on Finance, U.S. Senate (Washington, D.C.: United States General Accounting Office, June 1990).
34.
MayesL.C.GrangerR.H.BornsteinM.H.ZuckermanB., “The Problem of Prenatal Cocaine Exposure: A Rush to Judgement,”JAMA, 267 (1992): 406–08; and RobinsL.N.MillsJ.L. (eds.), “Effects of In Utero Exposure to Street Drugs,”American Journal of Public Health, 83 supp. (1993).
35.
Ibid.
36.
ChavkinW.PaoneD.FreidmanP.WiletsI., “Reframing the Debate: Toward Effective Treatment for Inner City Drug-Abusing Mothers,”Bulletin of the New York Academy of Medicine, 70, no. 1 (1993): 50–68.
37.
PaoneD.ChavkinW.WilletsI.FriedmanP.DesJarlaisD., “The Impact of Sexual Abuse: Implications for Drug Treatment,”Journal of Women's Health, 1 (1992): 149–53.
38.
NewbergerE.H.BarkanS.E.LeibermanE.S., “Abuse of Pregnant Women and Adverse Birth Outcome: Current Knowledge and Implications for Practice,”JAMA, 267, no. 17 (1992): 2370–72.
39.
McNultyM., “Pregnancy Police: The Health Policy and Legal Implications of Punishing Pregnant Women for Harm to Their Fetuses,”Review of Law and Social Change, XVI, no. 227 (1987–1988).
40.
In re A.C., 533 A.2d 611 (D.C. 1987), vacated 539 A.2d 203 (D.C. 1988), vacated and remanded 573 A.2d 1235 (D.C. 1990).
41.
International Union, U.A.W. v. Johnson Controls, 499 U.S. 187, 11 S. Ct. 1196, 113 L.Ed.2d 158 (1991).
42.
RobertsR.H., Memorandum to Central Detectives: Operation Guidelines (Charleston: City of Charleston, South Carolina, October 12, 1989).
43.
See American College of Obstetricians and Gynecologists, supra note 29; see Marshall, supra note 29; and see Chasnoff, supra note 32.
44.
BalisyS., “Maternal Substance Abuse: The Need to Provide Legal Protection for the Fetus,”South California Law Review, 60 (1987): 1209; and DoughertyC.J., “The Right to Begin Life with Sound Body and Mind: Fetal Patients and Conflicts with Their Mothers,”University of Detroit Law Review, 63 (1985): 89.
45.
JohnsenD., “The Creation of Fetal Rights: Conflicts with Women's Constitutional Rights to Liberty, Privacy, and Equal Protection,”Yale Law Journal, 95 (1986): 599; and MossK., “Substance Abuse During Pregnancy,”Harvard Women's Law Journal, 13 (1990): 278–99.
46.
Roe v. Wade, 410 U.S. 113 (1973).
47.
Child Welfare League of America, Children at the Front: A Different View of the War on Drugs (Washington, D.C.: North American Commission on Chemical Dependency and Child Welfare, 1992).
48.
Florida v. Jennifer Johnson, No. E89-890-CFA, motion for rehearsing and sentencing (18th Cir. 1989).
49.
See Chavkin, supra note 23.
50.
Rochin v. California, 342 U.S. 165, 172 (1952); Winston v. Lee, 105 S. Ct. 1611 (1985); and Schmerber v. California, 384 U.S. 757 (1966).
51.
See Chavkin, supra note 30.
52.
See Moss, supra note 45.
53.
See Chavkin, supra note 30.
54.
RobertsD.E., “Punishing Drug Addicts Who Have Babies: Women of Color, Equality, and the Right of Privacy,”Harvard Law Review, 104, no. 7 (1991): 1419–82.
55.
Committee on Bioethics of the American Academy of Pediatrics, “Fetal Therapy: Ethical Considerations,”Women's Health Issues, 1, no. 1 (1990): 16–17; Committee of Ethics of the American College of Obstetricians and Gynecologists, “Patient Choice: Maternal-Fetal Conflict,”Women's Health Issues, 1, no. 1 (1990): 13–15; Board of Trustees of the American Medical Association, “Legal Interventions During Pregnancy: Court-Ordered Medical Treatments and Legal Penalties for Potentially Harmful Behavior by Pregnant Women,”JAMA, 264, no. 20 (1990): 2663–70; “Policy Statement No. 9020: Illicit Drug Use by Pregnant Women,”Public Policy Statements of the American Public Health Association: 1948–1991 Collection (Washington, D.C.: American Public Health Association, 1992), pp. 466–67; and Committee on Adolescence, Committee on Bioethics, and Provisional Committee on Substance Abuse, “Screening for Drugs Abuse in Children and Adolescents,”Pediatrics, 84, no. 2 (1989): 396–87.
56.
ChavkinW.St. ClairD., “Beyond Prenatal Care: A Comprehensive Vision of Reproductive Health,”JAMA, 45 (1990): 223–25; and WiseP.H., “Confronting Racial Disparities in Infant Mortality: Reconciling Science and Politics,”American Journal of Preventative Medicine, 9 (1993): 7–16.