One model has already been proposed in Susan Sontag's brilliant polemic, Illness as Metaphor. In this work, Sontag assessed the important ways in which tuberculosis and cancer have been used as metaphors. Using techniques of literary analysis she demonstrated prevailing cultural views of these diseases and their victims. See SontagS, Illness as metaphor, New York, 1978.
2.
The following discussion is abbreviated from my book, No magic bullet: A social history of venereal disease in the United States since 1880, New York, 1985; rev. ed., 1987.
3.
On the problem of ophthalmia neonatorum see WolbarstAL, On the occurrence of syphilis and gonorrhea in children by direct infection, American Medicine 1912, n.s., 7: 494; Von BlarcumC, The harm done in ascribing all babies' sore eyes to gonorrhea, American Journal of Public Health1916, 6: 926–31; and KerrJW, Ophthalmia neonatorum: An analysis of the laws and regulations in relation thereto in force in the United States, Public Health Service Bulletin1914, no. 49.
4.
BurrAH, The guarantee of safety in the marriage contract, Journal of the American Medical Association1906, 47: 1887–88.
5.
See BrieuxE, Damaged goods, trans. PollackJ, New York, 1913. On the critical reception of the play see Demoralizing plays, Outlook 1913, 150: 110; RockefellerJD, The awakening of a new social conscience, Medical Reviews of Reviews1913, 19: 281; Damaged goods, Hearst's Magazine 1913, 23: 806; Brieux's new sociological sermon in three acts, Current Opinion1913, 54: 296–97. See also RosenkrantzBG, Damaged goods: Dilemmas of responsibility for risk, Health and Society1979, 57: 1–37.
6.
KellyH, Social diseases and their prevention, Social Diseases1910, 1: 17; KellyH, The protection of the innocent, American Journal of Obstetrics, April 1907: 477–81.
7.
On prostitution in Progressive America see Boyer PS, Urban masses and moral order, Cambridge, 1978; RosenR, The lost sisterhood: Prostitution in America 1900–1918, Baltimore, 1982; and ConnellyMT, The response to prostitution in the Progressive Era, Chapel Hill, 1980.
8.
On non-venereal transmission see especially BulkeyLD, Syphilis of the innocent, New York, 1894.
9.
What one woman has had to bear, Forum1912, 68: 451–54. See also New laws about drinking cups, Life1911, 58: 1152.
10.
The wartime policy for the attack on the red-light districts and the testing and incarceration of prostitutes are described in greater detail in Brandt, No magic bullet, supra note 2, at 80–95.
11.
GregoryTW, Memorandum on legal aspects of the proposed system of medical examination of women convicted under section 13, Selective Service Act, National Archives, Record Group 90, Box 223. See also DietzlerMM, Detention houses and reformatories as protective social agencies in the campaign of the United States government against venereal diseases, United States Interdepartmental Social Hygiene Board, Washington, D.C., 1922.
12.
PierceCC, The value of detention as a reconstruction measure, American Journal of Obstetrics1919, 80: 629.
13.
AFRAIDS, The New Republic, October 14, 1985: 7–9. See also KrauthammerC, The politics of a plague, The New Republic, August 1, 1983: 18–21.
14.
New York Times, June 26, 1985.
15.
WinstenJA, Fighting panic on AIDS, New York Times, July 26, 1983.
16.
The fear of AIDS, Newsweek 1985, 106: 18–25. On the school controversy see New York Times, October 13, October 24, and December 8, 1985. Also RothmanDJ, Public policy and risk assessment in the case of AIDS, forthcoming, United Hospital Fund.
17.
EisenbergL, The genesis of fear: AIDS and the public's response to science, Law, Medicine & Health Care1986, 14: 243–249; BalzellR, The history of an epidemic, The New Republic1983, 189:14–18; GoldsteinR, The uses of AIDS, Village Voice, November 5, 1985: 25–27.
18.
Fear and AIDS in Hollywood, People, September 23, 1985: 28–33; New York Times, November 7, 1985; Washington Post, July 28, 1985.
19.
Life1985, 8: 12–21.
20.
See BayerR, Homosexuality and American psychiatry: The politics of diagnosis, New York, 1981.
21.
New York Post, May 24, 1983.
22.
Quoted in New York Times, March 18, 1986.
23.
GoffmanE, Stigma: Notes on the management of spoiled identity, Englewood Cliffs, N.J., 1963.
24.
On the Justice Department ruling see New York Times, June 23 and 27, 1986; Wall Street Journal, June 17, 1986.
25.
New York Times, June 26, 1986.
26.
KrauthammerC, Fear him and fire him, Washington Post, June 27, 1986.
27.
New York Times, July 1, 1986.
28.
On military testing, see New York Times, October 13, 1985, January 31 and February 2, 1986; Science, July 18, 1986. Military screening has shown relatively high rates of infection. In Manhattan, 2 percent of individuals applying to enter the service were found to be infected; these numbers are 15 to 20 times higher than the estimated national prevalence.
29.
Among those who have recommended mandatory screening for high-risk individuals are Lewis Kuller, professor of epidemiology at the University of Pittsburgh, and Paul Starr, professor of sociology at Princeton. See Chronicle of Higher Education, June 4, 1986.
30.
BuckleyWFJr., Identify all the carriers, New York Times, March 18, 1986.
31.
See, for example, SenakM, Ban AIDS blood tests, New York Times, May 27, 1986.
32.
New York Times, June 11, 1986. See also the full-page advertisement of the American Council of Life Insurance and the Health Insurance Association of America, Washington Post, May 11, 1986.
33.
Quoted in Washington Post, June 20, 1986, June 28, 1986.
34.
New York Times, January 10, June 8, and November 3, 1986; on the problem of financing AIDS see also SeageGR, The medical cost of treatment of AIDS/ARC patients, Boston Department of Health and Hospitals, May 12, 1985; LeePR, AIDS: Allocating resources for patient care, Issues in Science and Technology1986, 2: 66–73; and especially FeinR, AIDS and economics, AIDS Institute of the New York State Department of Health, May 29, 1986.
35.
Washington Post, May 25, 1983, July 23, 1985; New York Times, June 15, 1983, July 29 and October 24, 1985; and especially, Office of Technology Assessment, U.S. Congress, Review of the Public Health Service's response to AIDS: A technical memorandum, Washington, D.C., February 1985.
36.
FinebergHV, A way to tackle AIDS education, New York Times, July 13, 1986; also ClearyP, Health education about AIDS risk, Health Education Quarterly, forthcoming.
37.
New York Times, July 6, 1986.
38.
For an analysis of the difficult social policy questions raised by AIDS, see BayerR, AIDS, power and reason, Milbank Quarterly1986, 64 (supp 1): 668–82. On legal issues see GostinLCurranWJClarkM, First line of defense in controlling AIDS, American Journal of Law and Medicine, forthcoming.
39.
See Eisenberg, supra note 17; also ConradP, The social meaning of AIDS, Social Policy, forthcoming.
40.
HenigRM, AIDS: A new disease's deadly odyssey, New York Times Magazine, February 6, 1983: 36.
41.
See, for example, KnowlesJH, The responsibility of the individual, Daedalus1977, 106:68; and CarlenR, Against free clinics for sexually transmitted diseases, New England Journal of Medicine1982, 307:1350.
42.
DowlingH, Fighting infection, Cambridge, Mass., 1977: 228–50; New York Times, January 23, 1977.
