Medical Uncertainty,Diagnostic Testing,and Legal Liability

Bursztajn H. , Medical Choices, Medical Chances (Delacorte Press, New York, 1981), 23–26.

President's Commission for the Study of Ethical Problems in Medicine and Biomedical and Behavioral Research, Making Health Care Decisions (U.S. Government Printing Office, Washington, DC, 1982) (hereinafter cited as President's Commission), 1:85, 89.

Reuben D.B. , Learning Diagnostic Restraint, New England Journal of Medicine 310(9):591–93 (March 1, 1984).

See Fuchs V. , Who Shall Live? Health, Economics and Social Change (Basic Books, New York, 1974).

Reuben , supra note 3, at 92.

See Katz J. , The Silent World of Doctor and Patient (Free Press, New York, 1984), 165–206.

Cohen M.L. , Letter Response—Uncertainty, Journal of the American Medical Association 25116:2083 (April 27, 1984); Gutheil T.G. Bursztajn H. Brodsky A. , Malpractice Prevention Through the Sharing of Uncertainty: informed Consent and the Therapeutic Alliance, New England Journal of Medicine 311(1):49–51 (July 5, 1984).

Bursztajn , supra note 1, at 37–38.

President's Commission, supra note 2, at 1:86–87.

See Mechanic D. , Physicians, in Handbook of Health, Health Care, and the Health Professions (ed. Mechanic D. ) (Free Press, New York, 1983), 432, 446–47. See generally Reuben, supra note 3.

See Bok D. , Needed: A New Way to Train Doctors, Harvard Magazine 86:32 (May-June 1984).

Volpintesta E.J. , Learning Diagnostic Restraint, New England Journal of Medicine 3112:130 (July 12, 1984).

Bursztajn , supra note 1, at 64; see Wiley J. , The Impact of Judicial Decisions on Professional Conduct: An Empirical Study, Southern California Law Review 552:345 (January 1982); Reuben , supra note 3, at 592; see Schwartz W.M. Komesar N.K. , Doctors, Damages and Deterrence: An Economic View of Medical Malpractice, New England Journal of Medicine 29823:1282 (June 8, 1978).

Hershey N. The Defensive Practice of Medicine: Myth or Reality, Milbank Memorial Fund Quarterly50(1):69, 72 (January 1972).

Congress Grapples with Tort Reforms to Cut Medical Malpractice Costs, Medical World News 259:49 (May 14, 1984).

Liability Scare Boosts Costs by 25 Percent, American Medical News 2715:25 (April 20, 1984). See generally Danzon P. , Medical Malpractice: Theory, Evidence, and Public Policy (Harvard University Press, Cambridge, 1985).

Hershey , supra note 14, at 75.

Malpractice: More Radical Solutions, Medical World News 26 (March 25, 1985).

King J.H. Jr. , The Law of Medical Malpractice (West Publishing Co., St. Paul, 1977), 324–27; Alton W.G. , Malpractice: A Trial Lawyer's Advice for Physicians (Little, Brown, Boston, 1977), 1–9; see S.F. Piscina, Medical Law for the Attending Physician: A Case-Oriented Analysis (Southern Illinois University Press, Carbondale, Ill., 1982), 68–93.

Bursztajn , supra note 1, at 169–71.

Caesarean Childbirth: Report of a Consensus Development Conference (National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, 1981), 484, 491–97.

Id. at 502.

Id. at 479–506.

Helling v. Carey, 519 P. 2d 981 (Wash. 1974).

Id. at 981, 983.

Id. at 982.

Id. at 983.

See, e.g., Charfoos , Helling: The Law of Medical Malpractice Rewritten, Ohio Northern Law Review 2:692 (1975); Wechsler and Classe , Helling v. Carey: Caveat Medicus (Let the Doctor Beware), Journal of the American Optometrists Association 48:1526 (1977).

Gates v. Jensen, 595 P. 2d 919 (Wash. 1979)

Truman v. Thomas, 611 P. 2d 902 (Cal. 1980)

Peters B.M. , The Application of Reasonable Prudence to Medical Malpractice Litigation: The Precursor to Strict Liability? Law, Medicine & Health Care 9(6):21–24, 45 (December 1981).

See President's Commission, supra note 2, at 3:193–251.

Potchen E.J. , Efficacy Studies in Defensive Medicine, in Legal Medicine with Special Reference to Diagnostic Imaging (ed. James A.E. Jr. ) (Urban & Schwarzenberg, Baltimore, 1980), 353, 358–60.

Wilensky J.T. , Glaucoma: The Scope of the Problem, in Glaucoma: Contemporary International Concepts (ed. Bellows J.G. ) (Masson Publishing USA, New York, 1979) (hereinafter cited as Bellows), at I.

Radnot M. Follman P. , Diagnosis of Primary Open-Angle Glaucoma, in Bellows, supra note 34, at 213, 216.

Bellows J.G. , A Simplified Program for Glaucoma Screening, in Bellows, supra note 34, at 197, 199.

Radnot and Follman , supra note 35, at 230.

Helling, supra note 24, at 983.

Ford V.J. Zimmerman T.J. , Screening for Glaucoma, Annals of Ophthalmology 143:209 (March 1982).

Helling, supra note 24, at 982.

See Schwartz J.S. Ball J.H. Mosa R.H. , Safety, Efficacy, and Effectiveness of Clinical Practices: A New Initiative. Annals of Internal Medecine 96(2):246–47 (February 1982).

Neuhauser D. Lewicki A.M. , National Health Insurance and the Sixth Stool Guaiac, Policy Analysis 2(1):175–96 (Winter 1976).

See Ball J.R. , Prospective Payment: Implications for Medical Technology. Annals of Internal Medicine 100(4):606–7 (April 1984).