The link between long COVID-19 and brain/cognitive impairments is concerning and may foster a worrisome worldwide emergence of novel cases of neurodegenerative diseases with aging. This review aims to update the knowledge, crosstalk, and possible intersections between the Post-COVID Syndrome (PCS) and Alzheimer’s disease (AD). References included in this review were obtained from PubMed searches conducted between October 2023 and November 2023. PCS is a very heterogenous and poorly understood disease with recent evidence of a possible association with chronic diseases such as AD. However, more scientific data is required to establish the link between PCS and AD.
Tavares-JúniorJWL, de SouzaACC, BorgesJWP, OliveiraDN, Siqueira-NetoJI, Sobreira-NetoMA, Braga-NetoP (2022) COVID-19 associated cognitive impairment: A systematic review. Cortex152, 77–97.
2.
GreenhalghT, SivanM, DelaneyB, EvansR, MilneR (2022) Long covid—an update for primary care. BMJe072117.
3.
ScholkmannF, MayCA (2023) COVID-19, post-acute COVID-19 syndrome (PACS, “long COVID”) and post-COVID-19 vaccination syndrome (PCVS, “post-COVIDvac-syndrome”): Similarities and differences. Pathol Res Pract246, 154497.
4.
Tavares-JúniorJWL, OliveiraDN, da SilvaJBS, FeitosaWLQ, SousaAVM, CunhaLCV, GasparS de B, GomesCMP, de OliveiraLLB, Moreira-NunesCA, MontenegroRC, Sobreira-NetoMA, Braga-NetoP (2022) Long-covid cognitive impairment: Cognitive assessment and apolipoprotein E (APOE) genotyping correlation in a Brazilian cohort. Front Psychiatry13, 947583.
5.
SunD, WangR, ShiZ, ChenH, ZhouH (2023) Causal relationship of COVID-19 on Alzheimer’s disease: An updated Mendelian randomization study. Neurol Sci44, 2643–2644.
6.
BlennowK, de LeonMJ, ZetterbergH (2006) Alzheimer’s disease. Lancet368, 387–403.
7.
United Nations Department of Economic and Social Affairs PD (2020), World Population Ageing 2020 Highlights: Living arrangements of older persons (ST/ESA/SER.A/451).
8.
(2020) Economic burden of Alzheimer disease and managed care considerations. Am J Manag Care26, S177–S183.
LudvigssonJF (2021) Case report and systematic review suggest that children may experience similar long-term effects to adults after clinical COVID-19. Acta Paediatr110, 914–921.
11.
YongSJ (2021) Long COVID or post-COVID-19 syndrome: Putative pathophysiology, risk factors, and treatments. Infect Dis53, 737–754.
12.
FronteraJA, BoutajangoutA, MasurkarAV, BetenskyRA, GeY, VedvyasA, DebureL, MoreiraA, LewisA, HuangJ, ThawaniS, BalcerL, GalettaS, WisniewskiT (2022) Comparison of serum neurodegenerative biomarkers among hospitalized COVID-19 patients versus non-COVID subjects with normal cognition, mild cognitive impairment, or Alzheimer’s dementia. Alzheimers Dement18, 899–910.
13.
CiurleoGCV, Tavares-JúniorJWL, VieiraCMAG, Braga-NetoP, OriáRB (2023) Do APOE4 and long COVID-19 increase the risk for neurodegenerative diseases in adverse environments and poverty?Front Neurosci17, 1229073.
14.
CutlerDM (2022) The costs of long COVID. JAMA Health Forum3, e221809.
AuL, CapotescuC, CuriA, Gonçalves Leonel da SilvaR, EyalG (2023) Long Covid requires a global response centred on equity and dialogue. Glob Health Action16, 2244757.
22.
LiC, LiuJ, LinJ, ShangH (2022) COVID-19 and risk of neurodegenerative disorders: A Mendelian randomization study. Transl Psychiatry12, 283.
23.
BaranovaA, CaoH, ZhangF (2023) Causal effect of COVID-19 on Alzheimer’s disease: A Mendelian randomization study. J Med Virol95, e28107.
24.
ReissAB, GreeneC, DayaramaniC, RauchmanSH, SteckerMM, De LeonJ, PinkhasovA (2023) Long COVID, the brain, nerves, and cognitive function. Neurol Int15, 821–841.
25.
DavisHE, McCorkellL, VogelJM, TopolEJ (2023) Author Correction: Long COVID: Major findings, mechanisms and recommendations. Nat Rev Microbiol21, 408–408.
26.
MatschkeJ, LütgehetmannM, HagelC, SperhakeJP, SchröderAS, EdlerC, MushumbaH, FitzekA, AllweissL, DandriM, DottermuschM, HeinemannA, PfefferleS, SchwabenlandM, Sumner MagruderD, BonnS, PrinzM, GerloffC, PüschelK, KrasemannS, AepfelbacherM, GlatzelM (2020) Neuropathology of patients with COVID-19 in Germany: A post-mortem case series. Lancet Neurol19, 919–929.
SelfWK, HoltzmanDM (2023) Emerging diagnostics and therapeutics for Alzheimer disease. Nat Med29, 2187–2199.
35.
HampelH, HuY, CummingsJ, MattkeS, IwatsuboT, NakamuraA, VellasB, O’BryantS, ShawLM, ChoM, BatrlaR, VergalloA, BlennowK, DageJ, SchindlerSE (2023) Blood-based biomarkers for Alzheimer’s disease: Current state and future use in a transformed global healthcare landscape. Neuron111, 2781–2799.
36.
HanssonO (2021) Biomarkers for neurodegenerative diseases. Nat Med27, 954–963.
37.
BianchettiA, IkedaM, MateosR, MondiniS, RabheruK, SerratiC, De LeoD (2023) The NIA-AA revised clinical criteria for Alzheimer’s disease: Are they too advanced?Int Psychogeriatr35, 679–681.
38.
AbateG, MemoM, UbertiD (2020) Impact of COVID-19 on Alzheimer’s disease risk: Viewpoint for research action. Healthcare (Basel)8, 286.
39.
ChenF, ChenY, WangY, KeQ, CuiL (2022) The COVID-19 pandemic and Alzheimer’s disease: Mutual risks and mechanisms. Transl Neurodegener11, 40.
40.
LiF, HearnM, BennettLE (2021) The role of microbial infection in the pathogenesis of Alzheimer’s disease and the opportunity for protection by anti-microbial peptides. Crit Rev Microbiol47, 240–253.
41.
LiuN, JiangX, LiH (2023) The viral hypothesis in Alzheimer’s disease: SARS-CoV-2 on the cusp. Front Aging Neurosci15, 1129640.
42.
StrittmatterWJ, SaundersAM, SchmechelD, Pericak-VanceM, EnghildJ, SalvesenGS, RosesAD (1993) Apolipoprotein E: High-avidity binding to β-amyloid and increased frequency of type 4 allele in late-onset familial Alzheimer disease. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A90, 1977–1981.
43.
Tavares-JúniorJWL, OliveiraDN, da SilvaJBS, Queiroz FeitosaWL, SousaAVM, MarinhoSC, CunhaLCV, GasparS de B, GomesCMP, de OliveiraLLB, Moreira-NunesCA, SobreiraEST, MoraesMEA de, Sobreira-NetoMA, MontenegroRC, Braga-NetoP (2023) Post-COVID-19 cognitive decline and Apoe polymorphism: Towards a possible link?Brain Sci13, 1611.
44.
VandersteenC, PlonkaA, ManeraV, SawchukK, LafontaineC, GaleryK, RouaudO, BengaiedN, LaunayC, GuérinO, RobertP, AllaliG, BeauchetO, GrosA (2023) Alzheimer’s early detection in post-acute COVID-19 syndrome: A systematic review and expert consensus on preclinical assessments. Front Aging Neurosci15, 1206123.
45.
NIA-AA Revised Clinical Criteria for Alzheimer’s Disease.
46.
WangL, DavisPB, KaelberDC, XuR (2023) COVID-19 breakthrough infections and hospitalizations among vaccinated patients with dementia in the United States between December 2020 and August 2021. Alzheimers Dement19, 421–432.
47.
Rudnicka-DrożakE, DrożakP, MizerskiG, ZaborowskiT, ŚlusarskaB, NowickiG, DrożakM (2023) Links between COVID-19 and Alzheimer’s disease—what do we already know?Int J Environ Res Public Health20, 2146.
48.
MerlaL, MontesiMC, TicaliJ, BaisB, CavarapeA, ColussiGL (2023) COVID-19 accelerated cognitive decline in elderly patients with pre-existing dementia followed up in an outpatient memory care facility. J Clin Med12, 1845.
49.
LiW, SunL, YueL, XiaoS (2023) Alzheimer’s disease and COVID-19: Interactions, intrinsic linkages, and the role of immunoinflammatory responses in this process. Front Immunol14, 1120495.
50.
QiuS, HuY, ChengL (2022) A genome-wide cross-trait analysis highlights the shared genetic structure between COVID-19 and Alzheimer’s disease. J Infect84, e1–e2.
51.
StelzerG, RosenN, PlaschkesI, ZimmermanS, TwikM, FishilevichS, SteinTI, NudelR, LiederI, MazorY, KaplanS, DaharyD, WarshawskyD, Guan-GolanY, KohnA, RappaportN, SafranM, LancetD (2016) The GeneCards Suite: From gene data mining to disease genome sequence analyses. Curr Protoc Bioinformatics54, 1.30.1–1.30.33.
52.
MatveevaN, KiselevI, BaulinaN, SeminaE, KakotkinV, AgapovM, KulakovaO, FavorovaO (2023) Shared genetic architecture of COVID-19 and Alzheimer’s disease. Front Aging Neurosci15, 1287322.
53.
JarrottB, HeadR, PringleKG, LumbersER, MartinJH (2022) “LONG COVID”—A hypothesis for understanding the biological basis and pharmacological treatment strategy. Pharmacol Res Perspect10, e00911.
54.
RatajczakMZ, KuciaM (2020) SARS-CoV-2 infection and overactivation of Nlrp3 inflammasome as a trigger of cytokine “storm” and risk factor for damage of hematopoietic stem cells. Leukemia34, 1726–1729.
55.
Samudyata, OliveiraAO, MalwadeS, Rufino de SousaN, GoparajuSK, GraciasJ, OrhanF, SteponaviciuteL, SchallingM, SheridanSD, PerlisRH, RothfuchsAG, SellgrenCM (2022) SARS-CoV-2 promotes microglial synapse elimination in human brain organoids. Mol Psychiatry27, 3939–3950.
DelormeC, PaccoudO, KasA, HestersA, BomboisS, ShambrookP, BoulletA, DoukhiD, le GuennecL, GodefroyN, MaatougR, FossatiP, MilletB, NavarroV, BruneteauG, DemeretS, PourcherV (2020) COVID-19-related encephalopathy: A case series with brain FDG-positron-emission tomography/computed tomography findings. Eur J Neurol27, 2651–2657.
66.
CaniI, BaroneV, D’AngeloR, PisaniL, AllegriV, SpinardiL, MalpassiP, FasanoL, RinaldiR, FantiS, CortelliP, GuarinoM (2021) Frontal encephalopathy related to hyperinflammation in COVID-19. J Neurol268, 16–19.
67.
KasA, SoretM, PyatigoskayaN, HabertMO, HestersA, Le GuennecL, PaccoudO, BomboisS, DelormeC (2021) The cerebral network of COVID-19-related encephalopathy: A longitudinal voxel-based 18F-FDG-PET study. Eur J Nucl Med Mol Imaging48, 2543–2557.
68.
HospJA, DressingA, BlazhenetsG, BormannT, RauA, SchwabenlandM, ThurowJ, WagnerDi, WallerC, NiesenWD, FringsL, UrbachH, PrinzM, WeillerC, SchroeterN, MeyerPT (2021) Cognitive impairment and altered cerebral glucose metabolism in the subacute stage of COVID-19. Brain144, 1263–1276.
69.
HugonJ, MsikaEF, QueneauM, FaridK, PaquetC (2022) Long COVID: Cognitive complaints (brain fog) and dysfunction of the cingulate cortex. J Neurol269, 44–46.
70.
HugonJ, QueneauM, Sanchez OrtizM, MsikaEF, FaridK, PaquetC (2022) Cognitive decline and brainstem hypometabolism in long COVID: A case series. Brain Behav12, e2513.
KlyucherevTO, OlszewskiP, ShalimovaAA, ChubarevVN, TarasovVV, AttwoodMM, SyvänenS, SchiöthHB (2022) Advances in the development of new biomarkers for Alzheimer’s disease. Transl Neurodegener11, 25.
73.
O’BryantSE, MielkeMM, RissmanRA, ListaS, VandersticheleH, ZetterbergH, LewczukP, PosnerH, HallJ, JohnsonL, FongY, LuthmanJ, JerominA, Batrla-UtermannR, VillarrealA, BrittonG, SnyderPJ, HenriksenK, GrammasP, GuptaV, MartinsR, HampelH (2017) Blood-based biomarkers in Alzheimer disease: Current state of the science and a novel collaborative paradigm for advancing from discovery to clinic. Alzheimers Dement13, 45–58.
74.
AbdelhakA, FoschiM, Abu-RumeilehS, YueJK, D’AnnaL, HussA, OecklP, LudolphAC, KuhleJ, PetzoldA, ManleyGT, GreenAJ, OttoM, TumaniH (2022) Blood GFAP as an emerging biomarker in brain and spinal cord disorders. Nat Rev Neurol18, 158–172.
75.
CrunfliF, CarregariVC, VerasFP, SilvaLS, NogueiraMH, AntunesASLM, VendraminiPH, ValençaAGF, Brandão-TelesC, ZuccoliG da S, Reis-de-OliveiraG, Silva-CostaLC, Saia-CeredaVM, SmithBJ, CodoAC, de SouzaGF, MuraroSP, ParisePL, Toledo-TeixeiraDA, Santos de CastroÍM, MeloBM, AlmeidaGM, FirminoEMS, PaivaIM, SilvaBMS, GuimarãesRM, MendesND, LudwigRL, RuizGP, KnittelTL, DavanzoGG, GerhardtJA, RodriguesPB, ForatoJ, AmorimMR, BrunettiNS, MartiniMC, BenattiMN, BatahSS, SiyuanL, JoãoRB, AventuratoÍK, Rabelo de BritoM, MendesMJ, da CostaBA, AlvimMKM, da Silva JúniorJR, DamiãoLL, de SousaIMP, da RochaED, GonçalvesSM, Lopes da SilvaLH, BettiniV, CamposBM, LudwigG, TavaresLA, PontelliMC, VianaRMM, MartinsRB, VieiraAS, Alves-FilhoJC, ArrudaE, Podolsky-GondimGG, SantosMV, NederL, DamasioA, RehenS, VinoloMAR, MunhozCD, Louzada-JuniorP, OliveiraRD, CunhaFQ, NakayaHI, MauadT, Duarte-NetoAN, Ferraz da SilvaLF, DolhnikoffM, SaldivaPHN, FariasAS, CendesF, Moraes-VieiraPMM, FabroAT, SebollelaA, Proença-ModenaJL, YasudaCL, MoriMA, CunhaTM, Martins-de-SouzaD (2022) Morphological, cellular, and molecular basis of brain infection in COVID-19 patients. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A119, e2200960119.
76.
HanssonO, EdelmayerRM, BoxerAL, CarrilloMC, MielkeMM, RabinoviciGD, SallowayS, SperlingR, ZetterbergH, TeunissenCE (2022) The Alzheimer’s Association appropriate use recommendations for blood biomarkers in Alzheimer’s disease. Alzheimers Dement18, 2669–2686.
77.
CicognolaC, JanelidzeS, HertzeJ, ZetterbergH, BlennowK, Mattsson-CarlgrenN, HanssonO (2021) Plasma glial fibrillary acidic protein detects Alzheimer pathology and predicts future conversion to Alzheimer dementia in patients with mild cognitive impairment. Alzheimers Res Ther13, 68.
78.
VerberkIMW, LaarhuisMB, van den BoschKA, EbenauJL, van LeeuwenstijnM, PrinsND, ScheltensP, TeunissenCE, van der FlierWM (2021) Serum markers glial fibrillary acidic protein and neurofilament light for prognosis and monitoring in cognitively normal older people: A prospective memory clinic-based cohort study. Lancet Healthy Longev2, e87–e95.
79.
LiuY, JiangH, QinX, TianM, ZhangH (2022) PET imaging of reactive astrocytes in neurological disorders. Eur J Nucl Med Mol Imaging49, 1275–1287.
80.
DasS, van EngelenM-PE, GoossensJ, JacobsD, BongersB, FieldhouseJLP, PijnenburgYAL, TeunissenCE, VanmechelenE, VerberkIMW (2024) The use of synaptic biomarkers in cerebrospinal fluid to differentiate behavioral variant of frontotemporal dementia from primary psychiatric disorders and Alzheimer’s disease. Alzheimers Res Ther16, 34.
81.
NilssonJ, CousinsKAQ, GobomJ, PorteliusE, Chen-PlotkinA, ShawLM, GrossmanM, IrwinDJ, TrojanowskiJQ, ZetterbergH, BlennowK, BrinkmalmA (2023) Cerebrospinal fluid biomarker panel of synaptic dysfunction in Alzheimer’s disease and other neurodegenerative disorders. Alzheimers Dement19, 1775–1784.
82.
ArslanB, ZetterbergH, AshtonNJ (2024) Blood-based biomarkers in Alzheimer’s disease - moving towards a new era of diagnostics. Clin Chem Lab Med62, 1063–1069.
83.
PielJHA, BargemannL, LeypoldtF, WandingerK-P, DargvainieneJ (2024) Serum NFL and tau, but not serum UCHL-1 and GFAP or CSF SNAP-25, NPTX2, or sTREM2, correlate with delirium in a 3-year retrospective analysis. Front Neurol15, 1356575.
84.
EitanE, Thornton-WellsT, ElgartK, ErdenE, GershunE, LevineA, VolpertO, AzadehM, SmithDG, KapogiannisD (2023) Synaptic proteins in neuron-derived extracellular vesicles as biomarkers for Alzheimer’s disease: Novel methodology and clinical proof of concept. Extracell Vesicles Circ Nucl Acids4, 133–150.
85.
SauerM, De RockerC, GrötschelL, GoossensJ, BenedetAL, SchöllM, NilssonJ, BrinkmalmA, JanelidzeS, StomrudE, O’BrienJT, ChouliarasL, MalpettiM, Rosa-NetoP, RoweJB, ZetterbergH, BlennowK, HanssonO, VanmechelenE, AshtonNJ (2023) Blood-based SNAP-25 and VAMP-2 in Alzheimer’s disease; relation to cognition, atrophy and synaptic density. Alzheimers Dement19(Supp 24), e083128.
MohauptP, PonsM-L, VialaretJ, DelabyC, HirtzC, LehmannS (2022) β-Synuclein as a candidate blood biomarker for synaptic degeneration in Alzheimer’s disease. Alzheimers Res Ther14, 179.
88.
EsquerA, BlancF, CollonguesN (2023) immunotherapies targeting amyloid and tau protein in Alzheimer’s disease: Should we move away from diseases and focus on biological targets? A systematic review and expert opinion. Neurol Ther12, 1883–1907.
89.
NysE, PauwelsS, ÁdámB, AmaroJ, AthanasiouA, BashkinO, BricTK, BulatP, CaglayanC, Guseva CanuI, CebanuS, CharbotelB, CiruleJ, CurtiS, DavidovitchN, DopeltK, FikfakMD, FrilanderH, GustavssonP, HöperAC, KiranS, KogevinasM, KudászF, KolstadHA, LazarevicSB, MacanJ, MajeryN, MarinaccioA, MatesD, MattioliS, McElvennyDM, MediouniZ, MehlumIS, MerisaluE, MijakoskiD, NenaE, NooneP, OteleaMR, PelclovaD, PranjicN, RossoM, SerraC, RushtonL, SandalA, SchernhammerES, StoleskiS, TurnerMC, van der MolenHF, VargaM, Walusiak-SkorupaJ, StraifK, GodderisL (2023) Recognition of COVID-19 with occupational origin: A comparison between European countries. Occup Environ Med80, 694–701.
90.
HHS Press Office. Available from: https://www.hhs.gov/news, HHS Announces the Formation of the Office of Long COVID Research and Practice and Launch of Long COVID Clinical Trials Through the RECOVER Initiative: FOR IMMEDIATE RELEASE, Last updated July 31, 2023, Accessed on July 31, 2023.
91.
PatelMA, KnauerMJ, NicholsonM, DaleyM, Van NynattenLR, MartinC, PattersonEK, CepinskasG, SeneySL, DobretzbergerV, MiholitsM, WebbB, FraserDD (2022) Elevated vascular transformation blood biomarkers in Long-COVID indicate angiogenesis as a key pathophysiological mechanism. Mol Med28, 122.
92.
DavisHE, McCorkellL, VogelJM, TopolEJ (2023) Long COVID: Major findings, mechanisms and recommendations. Nat Rev Microbiol21, 133–146.
93.
TakataF, NakagawaS, MatsumotoJ, DohguS (2021) Blood-brain barrier dysfunction amplifies the development of neuroinflammation: Understanding of cellular events in brain microvascular endothelial cells for prevention and treatment of BBB dysfunction. Front Cell Neurosci15, 661838.
BuergerK, EwersM, PirttilaT, ZinkowskiR, AlafuzoffI, TeipelSJ, DeBernardisJ, KerkmanD, McCullochC, SoininenH, HampelH (2006) CSF phosphorylated tau protein correlates with neocortical neurofibrillary pathology in Alzheimer’s disease. Brain129, 3035–3041.
96.
KarikariTK, PascoalTA, AshtonNJ, JanelidzeS, BenedetAL, RodriguezJL, ChamounM, SavardM, KangMS, TherriaultJ, SchöllM, MassarwehG, SoucyJ-P, HöglundK, BrinkmalmG, MattssonN, PalmqvistS, GauthierS, StomrudE, ZetterbergH, HanssonO, Rosa-NetoP, BlennowK (2020) Blood phosphorylated tau 181 as a biomarker for Alzheimer’s disease: A diagnostic performance and prediction modelling study using data from four prospective cohorts. Lancet Neurol19, 422–433.
97.
JanelidzeS, StomrudE, SmithR, PalmqvistS, MattssonN, AireyDC, ProctorNK, ChaiX, ShcherbininS, SimsJR, Triana-BaltzerG, TheunisC, SlemmonR, MerckenM, KolbH, DageJL, HanssonO (2020) Cerebrospinal fluid p-tau217 performs better than p-tau181 as a biomarker of Alzheimer’s disease. Nat Commun11, 1683.
98.
AshtonNJ, PascoalTA, KarikariTK, BenedetAL, Lantero-RodriguezJ, BrinkmalmG, SnellmanA, SchöllM, TroakesC, HyeA, GauthierS, VanmechelenE, ZetterbergH, Rosa-NetoP, BlennowK (2021) Plasma p-tau231: A new biomarker for incipient Alzheimer’s disease pathology. Acta Neuropathol141, 709–724.
99.
LleóA, IrwinDJ, Illán-GalaI, McMillanCT, WolkDA, LeeEB, Van DeerlinVM, ShawLM, TrojanowskiJQ, GrossmanM (2018) A 2-step cerebrospinal algorithm for the selection of frontotemporal lobar degeneration subtypes. JAMA Neurol75, 738.
100.
KernS, SyrjanenJA, BlennowK, ZetterbergH, SkoogI, WaernM, HagenCE, van HartenAC, KnopmanDS, JackCR, PetersenRC, MielkeMM (2019) Association of cerebrospinal fluid neurofilament light protein with risk of mild cognitive impairment among individuals without cognitive impairment. JAMA Neurol76, 187.
KvartsbergH, DuitsFH, IngelssonM, AndreasenN, ÖhrfeltA, AnderssonK, BrinkmalmG, LannfeltL, MinthonL, HanssonO, AndreassonU, TeunissenCE, ScheltensP, Van der FlierWM, ZetterbergH, PorteliusE, BlennowK (2015) Cerebrospinal fluid levels of the synaptic protein neurogranin correlates with cognitive decline in prodromal Alzheimer’s disease. Alzheimers Dement11, 1180–1190.
103.
JanelidzeS, HertzeJ, ZetterbergH, Landqvist WaldöM, SantilloA, BlennowK, HanssonO (2016) Cerebrospinal fluid neurogranin and YKL-40 as biomarkers of Alzheimer’s disease. Ann Clin Transl Neurol3, 12–20.
104.
KesterMI, TeunissenCE, CrimminsDL, HerriesEM, LadensonJackH, ScheltensP, van der FlierWM, MorrisJC, HoltzmanDM, FaganAM (2015) Neurogranin as a cerebrospinal fluid biomarker for synaptic loss in symptomatic Alzheimer disease. JAMA Neurol72, 1275.
105.
WestinK, BuchhaveP, NielsenH, MinthonL, JanciauskieneS, HanssonO (2012) CCL2 Is associated with a faster rate of cognitive decline during early stages of Alzheimer’s disease. PLoS One7, e30525.
106.
GalimbertiD, SchoonenboomN, ScarpiniE, ScheltensP (2003) Chemokines in serum and cerebrospinal fluid of Alzheimer’s disease patients. Ann Neurol53, 547–548.
107.
Suárez-CalvetM, CapellA, Araque CaballeroMÁ, Morenas-RodríguezE, FellererK, FranzmeierN, KleinbergerG, ErenE, DemingY, PiccioL, KarchCM, CruchagaC, PaumierK, BatemanRJ, FaganAM, MorrisJC, LevinJ, DanekA, JuckerM, MastersCL, RossorMN, RingmanJM, ShawLM, TrojanowskiJQ, WeinerM, EwersM, HaassC (2018) CSF progranulin increases in the course of Alzheimer’s disease and is associated with sTREM2, neurodegeneration and cognitive decline. EMBO Mol Med10, e9712.
108.
JanelidzeS, MattssonN, StomrudE, LindbergO, PalmqvistS, ZetterbergH, BlennowK, HanssonO (2018) CSF biomarkers of neuroinflammation and cerebrovascular dysfunction in early Alzheimer disease. Neurology91, e867–e877.
109.
Banzhaf-StrathmannJ, BenitoE, MayS, ArzbergerT, TahirovicS, KretzschmarH, FischerA, EdbauerD (2014) Micro RNA-125b induces tau hyperphosphorylation and cognitive deficits in Alzheimer’s disease. EMBO J33, 1667–1680.
110.
TanL, YuJ-T, LiuQ-Y, TanM-S, ZhangW, HuN, WangY-L, SunL, JiangT, TanL (2014) Circulating miR-125b as a biomarker of Alzheimer’s disease. J Neurol Sci336, 52–56.
111.
Silvestro, Bramanti, Mazzon (2019) Role of miRNAs in Alzheimer’s disease and possible fields of application. Int J Mol Sci20, 3979.
PalmqvistS, ZetterbergH, BlennowK, VestbergS, AndreassonU, BrooksDJ, OweniusR, HägerströmD, WollmerP, MinthonL, HanssonO (2014) Accuracy of brain amyloid detection in clinical practice using cerebrospinal fluid β-amyloid 42. JAMA Neurol71, 1282.
119.
PalmqvistS, TidemanP, CullenN, ZetterbergH, BlennowK, DageJL, StomrudE, JanelidzeS, Mattsson-CarlgrenN, HanssonO (2021) Prediction of future Alzheimer’s disease dementia using plasma phospho-tau combined with other accessible measures. Nat Med27, 1034–1042.
120.
SugarmanMA, ZetterbergH, BlennowK, TripodisY, McKeeAC, SteinTD, MartinB, PalmisanoJN, SteinbergEG, SimkinI, BudsonAE, KillianyR, O’ConnorMK, AuR, QiuWWQ, GoldsteinLE, KowallNW, MezJ, SternRA, AloscoML (2020) A longitudinal examination of plasma neurofilament light and total tau for the clinical detection and monitoring of Alzheimer’s disease. Neurobiol Aging94, 60–70.
MattssonN, CullenNC, AndreassonU, ZetterbergH, BlennowK (2019) Association between longitudinal plasma neurofilament light and neurodegeneration in patients with Alzheimer disease. JAMA Neurol76, 791.
123.
GoetzlEJ, KapogiannisD, SchwartzJB, LobachIV, GoetzlL, AbnerEL, JichaGA, KarydasAM, BoxerA, MillerBL (2016) Decreased synaptic proteins in neuronal exosomes of frontotemporal dementia and Alzheimer’s disease. FASEB J30, 4141–4148.
124.
DursunE, Gezen-AkD, HanağasıH, BilgiçB, LohmannE, ErtanS, AtasoyİL, AlaylıoğluM, ArazÖS, ÖnalB, GündüzA, ApaydınH, KızıltanG, UlutinT, GürvitH, YılmazerS (2015) The interleukin 1 alpha, interleukin 1 beta, interleukin 6 and alpha-2-macroglobulin serum levels in patients with early or late onset Alzheimer’s disease, mild cognitive impairment or Parkinson’s disease. J Neuroimmunol283, 50–57.
ZulianiG, CavalieriM, GalvaniM, PassaroA, MunariMR, BosiC, ZurloA, FellinR (2008) Markers of endothelial dysfunction in older subjects with late onset Alzheimer’s disease or vascular dementia. J Neurol Sci272, 164–170.
128.
RentzosM, MichalopoulouM, NikolaouC, CambouriC, RombosA, DimitrakopoulosA, KapakiE, VassilopoulosD (2004) Serum levels of soluble intercellular adhesion molecule-1 and soluble endothelial leukocyte adhesion molecule-1 in Alzheimer’s disease. J Geriatr Psychiatry Neurol17, 225–231.
129.
SaresellaM, MarventanoI, PianconeF, La RosaF, GalimbertiD, FenoglioC, ScarpiniE, ClericiM (2020) IL-33 and its decoy sST2 in patients with Alzheimer’s disease and mild cognitive impairment. J Neuroinflammation17, 174.
130.
LiangC-S, SuK-P, TsaiC-L, LeeJ-T, ChuC-S, YehT-C, SuM-W, LinG-Y, LinY-K, ChuH-T, TsaiC-K, YangF-C (2020) The role of interleukin-33 in patients with mild cognitive impairment and Alzheimer’s disease. Alzheimers Res Ther12, 86.
131.
CooperYA, NachunD, DokuruD, YangZ, KarydasAM, SerreroG, YueB, BoxerAL, MillerBL, CoppolaG (2018) Progranulin levels in blood in Alzheimer’s disease and mild cognitive impairment. Ann Clin Transl Neurol5, 616–629.
LIUC-G, SONGJ, ZHANGY-Q, WANGP-C (2014) MicroRNA-193b is a regulator of amyloid precursor protein in the blood and cerebrospinal fluid derived exosomal microRNA-193b is a biomarker of Alzheimer’s disease. Mol Med Rep10, 2395–2400.
134.
XieB, ZhouH, ZhangR, SongM, YuL, WangL, LiuZ, ZhangQ, CuiD, WangX, XuS (2015) Serum miR-206 and miR-132 as potential circulating biomarkers for mild cognitive impairment. J Alzheimers Dis45, 721–731.
135.
AnsariA, MaffiolettiE, MilanesiE, MarizzoniM, FrisoniGB, BlinO, RichardsonJC, BordetR, ForloniG, GennarelliM, Bocchio-ChiavettoL (2019) miR-146a and miR-181a are involved in the progression of mild cognitive impairment to Alzheimer’s disease. Neurobiol Aging82, 102–109.
136.
MorrisE, ChalkidouA, HammersA, PeacockJ, SummersJ, KeevilS (2016) Diagnostic accuracy of 18F amyloid PET tracers for the diagnosis of Alzheimer’s disease: A systematic review and meta-analysis. Eur J Nucl Med Mol Imaging43, 374–385.
137.
PalmqvistS, ZetterbergH, MattssonN, JohanssonP, MinthonL, BlennowK, OlssonM, HanssonO (2015) Detailed comparison of amyloid PET and CSF biomarkers for identifying early Alzheimer disease. Neurology85, 1240–1249.
138.
LeuzyA, PascoalTA, StrandbergO, InselP, SmithR, Mattsson-CarlgrenN, BenedetAL, ChoH, LyooCH, La JoieR, RabinoviciGD, OssenkoppeleR, Rosa-NetoP, HanssonO (2021) A multicenter comparison of [18F]flortaucipir, [18F]RO948, and [18F]MK6240 tau PET tracers to detect a common target ROI for differential diagnosis. Eur J Nucl Med Mol Imaging48, 2295–2305.
OssenkoppeleR, HanssonO (2021) Towards clinical application of tau PET tracers for diagnosing dementia due to Alzheimer’s disease. Alzheimers Dement17, 1998–2008.
141.
MattssonN, ZetterbergH, JanelidzeS, InselPS, AndreassonU, StomrudE, PalmqvistS, BakerD, Tan HehirCA, JerominA, HanlonD, SongL, ShawLM, TrojanowskiJQ, WeinerMW, HanssonO, BlennowK (2016) Plasma tau in Alzheimer disease. Neurology87, 1827–1835.
142.
PorteliusE, ZetterbergH, SkillbäckT, TörnqvistU, AndreassonU, TrojanowskiJQ, WeinerMW, ShawLM, MattssonN (2015) Cerebrospinal fluid neurogranin: Relation to cognition and neurodegeneration in Alzheimer’s disease. Brain138, 3373–3385 .
