Reference Values for Selected Ophthalmic Diagnostic Tests in the Caatinga Parakeet ( Eupsittula Cactorum ) and Yellow-Chevroned Parakeet ( Brotogeris Chiriri )

Abstract

The aim of the present study was to determine reference values for selected ophthalmic diagnostic tests in the Caatinga Parakeet (Eupsittula cactorum) and Yellow-chevroned Parakeet (Brotogeris chiriri). Healthy adults of undetermined gender (15 Caatinga Parakeets and 13 Yellow-chevroned Parakeets), kept at the Triage Center of Wild Animals (CETAS, Salvador, Bahia, Brazil), were used in this investigation. Ophthalmic diagnostic tests were conducted in both eyes, including culture of the conjunctival bacterial flora with antimicrobial susceptibility test, conjunctival cytology, evaluation of tear production by phenol red thread test (PRTT) and endodontic absorbent paper point tear test (EAPPTT), measurements of palpebral fissure length (PFL) and corneal touch threshold (CTT). There was bacterial growth in 97.5% of the evaluated samples, with predominance of Grampositive microorganisms. The antimicrobial susceptibility test showed ciprofloxacin to be the most effective antibiotic. The conjunctival cytology of Caatinga Parakeets demonstrated hypocellularity with a discrete amount of squamous cells, whereas for Yellow-chevroned Parakeets, it presented hypercellularity and predominance of lymphocytes. Medians ± semi-interquartile ranges in Caatinga and Yellow-chevroned Parakeets, respectively, were: 3.51±2.2 and 1.67±1.95 mm·15 s⁻¹ for PRTT; 8.74±2.0 and 5.89±1.48 mm min⁻¹ for EAPPTT; 6.24±3.5 and 6.35±0.27 mm for PFL; and 4.5±1.0 and 3.5±1.95 cm for CTT. The ophthalmic parameters determined in this study may help in the diagnosis of ocular diseases in Caatinga and Yellow-chevroned Parakeets.

Keywords

antibiogram bacterial flora cytology aesthesiometry phenol red

Get full access to this article

View all access options for this article.

References

Beckwith-Cohen

, Horowitz

, Bdolah-Abram

, Lublin

and Ofri

(2015) Differences in ocular parameters between diurnal and nocturnal raptors. Vet. Ophthalmol., 18, 98–105.

Bliss

C.D.

, Aquino

and Woodhouse

(2015) Ocular findings and reference values for selected ophthalmic diagnostic tests in the Macaroni Penguin (Eudyptes chrysolophus) and Southern Rockhopper Penguin (Eudyptes chrysocome). Vet. Ophthalmol., 18, 86–93.

Brooks

D.E.

, Clark

C.K.

and Lester

G.D.

(2000) Cochet-Bonnet aesthesiometer-determined corneal sensitivity in neonatal foals and adult horses. Vet. Ophthalmol., 3, 133–137.

Clinical and Laboratory Standards Institute (CLSI) (2008) Performance standards for antimicrobial disk and dilution susceptibility tests for bacteria isolated from animals, approved standard, 3rd edition. CLSI document M31-A3, Wayne, PA.

Cullen

C.L.

(2003) Normal ocular features, conjunctival microflora and intraocular pressure in the Canadian Beaver (Castor canadensis). Vet. Ophthalmol., 6, 279–284.

Dupont

, Carrier

and Higgins

(1994) Bacterial and fungal flora in healthy eyes of birds of prey. Can. Vet. J., 35, 699–701.

Foti

, Fisichella

and Giacopello

(2013) Detection of methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA) in the microbial flora from the conjunctiva of healthy donkeys from Sicily (Italy). Vet. Ophthalmol., 16, 89–92.

Godoy

S.N.

(2007) Psittaciformes (Arara, Papagaio, Periquito). In: Cubas

Z.S.

, Silva

J.C.R.

and Catão-Dias

J.L.

(eds), Tratado de animais selvagens – medicina veterinária, pp. 222–251. Roca, São Paulo, Brazil.

Golebiowski

, Papas

and Stapleton

(2011) Assessing the sensory function of the ocular surface: implications of use of a non-contact air jet aesthesiometer versus the Cochet-Bonnet aesthesiometer. Exp. Eye Res., 92, 408–413.

10.

Gould

and Papasouliotis

(2013) Clinical microbiology and parasitology. In: Gelatt

K.N.

, Gilger

B.C.

and Kern

T.J.

(eds), Veterinary ophthalmology, 5th edition, pp. 300–350. Wiley-Blackwell Publishing, Hoboken, NJ.

11.

Harcourt-Brown

N.H.

(2009) Psittacine birds. In: Tully

T.N.

Jr. , Dorrestein

G.M.

and Jones

A.K.

(eds), Avian medicine, 2nd edition, pp. 112–143. Elsevier, Oxford.

12.

Harris

M.C.

, Schorling

J.J.

, Herring

I.P.

, Elvinger

, Bright

P.R.

and Pickett

J.P.

(2008) Ophthalmic examination findings in a colony of Screech Owls (Megascops asio). Vet. Ophthalmol., 11, 186–192.

13.

Hendrix

D.H.

and Sims

M.H.

(2004) Electroretinography in the Hispaniolan Amazon Parrot (Amazona ventralis). J. Avian Med. Surg., 18, 89–94.

14.

Holt

, Rosenthal

and Shofer

F.S.

(2006) The phenol red thread tear test in large Psittaciformes. Vet. Ophthalmol., 9, 109–113.

15.

Küehnel

(2003) Color atlas of cytology, histology, and microscopic anatomy, 4th edition. Thieme, New York.

16.

Lacerda

R.P.

, Obón

, Peña

M.T.

, Costa

, Ríos

and Leiva

(2014) A comparative study of corneal sensitivity in birds of prey. Vet. Ophthalmol., 17, 190–194.

17.

Lange

R.R.

, Lima

, Przydzimirski

A.C.

and Montiani-Ferreira

(2014) Reference values for the production of the aqueous fraction of the tear film measured by the standardized endodontic absorbent paper point test in different exotic and laboratory animal species. Vet. Ophthalmol., 17, 41–45.

18.

Lehmkuhl

R.C.

, Almeida

M.F.

, Mamprim

M.J.

and Vulcano

L.C.

(2010) B-mode ultrasonography biometry of the Amazon Parrot (Amazona aestiva) eye. Vet. Ophthalmol., 13, 26–28.

19.

Maggs

D.J.

, Miller

and Ofri

(2013) Slatter's fundamentals of veterinary ophthalmology, 5th edition. Elsevier, China.

20.

Meekins

J.M.

, Stuckey

J.A.

, Carpenter

J.W.

, Armbrust

and Rankin

A.J.

(2015) Ophthalmic diagnostic tests and ocular findings in a flock of captive American Flamingos (Phoenicopterus ruber ruber). J. Avian Med. Surg., 29, 95–105.

21.

Montiani-Ferreira

, Mattos

B.C.

and Russ

H.H.A.

(2006) Reference values for selected ophthalmic diagnostic tests of the Ferret (Mustela putorius furo). Vet. Ophthalmol., 9, 209–213.

22.

Oriá

A.P.

, Pinna

M.H.

, Almeida

D.S.

, Silva

R.M.M.

, Pinheiro

A.C.O.

, Santana

F.O.

, Costa

T.R.

, Meneses

D.S.

, Martins Filho

E.F.

and Oliveira

A.V.D.

(2013) Conjunctival flora, Schirmer's tear test, intraocular pressure, and conjunctival cytology in neotropical primates from Salvador, Brazil. J. Med. Primatol., 1, 1–6.

23.

Oriá

A.P.

, Silva

R.M.M.

, Pinna

M.H.

, Oliveira

A.V.D.

, Ferreira

P.R.B.

, Martins Filho

E.F.

, Meneses

I.D.S.

, Requião

K.G.

and Ofri

(2015) Ophthalmic diagnostic tests in captive Red-footed Tortoises (Chelonoidis carbonaria) in Salvador, northeast Brazil. Vet. Ophthalmol., 18, 46–52.

24.

Pinard

C.L.

, Brightman

A.H.

, Yeary

T.J.

, Everson

T.D.

, Cox

L.K.

, Chengappa

M.M.

and Davidson

H.J.

(2002) Normal conjunctival flora in the North American Opossum (Didelphis virginiana) and Raccoon (Procyon lotor). J. Wildl. Dis., 38, 851–855.

25.

Prado

M.R.

, Rocha

M.F.G.

, Brito

E.H.S.

, Girão

M.D.

, Monteiro

A.J.

, Teixeira

M.F.S.

and Sidrim

J.J.C.

(2005) Survey of bacterial microorganisms in the conjuntival sac of clinically normal dogs and dogs with ulcerative keratitis in Fortaleza, Ceará, Brazil. Vet. Ophthalmol., 8, 33–37.

26.

Raskin

R.E.

and Meyer

D.J.

(2003) Atlas de citologia de cães e gatos, 2nd edition. Roca, São Paulo, Brazil.

27.

Sick

(1997) Ordem dos Psittacimormes. In: Pacheco

J.F.

(ed.), Ornitologia Brasileira, 2nd edition, pp. 351–382. Nova Fronteira, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil.

28.

Smith

S.P.

, Barbon

A.R.

and Forbes

N.A.

(2015) Evaluation of the phenol red thread tear test in Falconiformes. J. Avian Med. Surg., 29, 25–29.

29.

Spinelli

T.P.

, Oliveira-Filho

E.F.

, Silva

, Mota

and Sá

F.B.

(2010) Normal aerobic bacterial conjunctival flora in the Crab-eating Raccoon (Procyon cancrivorus) and Coati (Nasua nasua) housed in captivity in Pernambuco and Paraiba (Northeast, Brazil). Vet. Ophthalmol., 13, 134–136.

30.

Storey

E.S.

, Carboni

D.A.

, Kearney

M.T.

and Tully

T.N.

(2009) Use of phenol red thread tests to evaluate tear production in clinically normal Amazon parrots and comparison with Schirmer tear test findings. J. Am. Vet. Med. Assoc., 10, 1181–1187.

31.

Zacarias Junior

, Freitas

J.C.

, Zacarias

F.G.S.

, Salvador

and Garcia

J.L.

(2012) Investigation of bacterial microbiota and risk factors in dogs with external ocular diseases from Bandeirantes, Paraná State, Brazil. Semina: Ciências Agrárias, Londrina, 33, 3243–3250.