Biological research in depression has concentrated on ‘endogenous’ depressions and over the past 30 years has been guided by the amine theory. Neuroendocrine abnormalities in depression have been reported for over 20 years and include changes in the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal and thyroid axes, in growth hormone and prolactin secretion. As neurotransmitters regulate neuroendocrine secretion, inter-relationships between neurochemical and neuroendocrine abnormalities may provide a window for understanding the pathophysiology of depression. The availability of these biological markers for depression opens new possibilities for research in psychiatric diagnosis and for management.
References
1.
AndreasenN. C.Concepts, diagnosis and classification. In: PaykelE. S. ed. Handbook of Affective Disorders, Edinburgh: Churchill Livingstone, 1982: 24–44.
2.
NelsonJ. C.CharneyD. S.The symptoms of major depressive illness. Am. J. Psychiatry, 1981: 138, 1–13.
3.
RothM.BarnesT. R. E.The classification of affective disorders: a synthesis of old and new concepts. Compreh. Psychiat. 1981: 54–77.
4.
GroveW. M.AndreasenN.C.McDonald-ScottP.Reliability studies of psychiatric diagnosis: theory and practice. Arch, Gen. Psychiatry, 1981: 38, 408–413.
5.
KendellR. E.The choice of diagnostic criteria for biological research. Arch. Gen. Psychiatry, 1982: 39, 1334–1339.
6.
EttigiP. G.BrownG. M.Psychoneuroendocrinology of affective disorder: an overview. Am. J. Psychiatry, 1977: 134, 493–501.
7.
RischS. C.KalinN. H.MurphyD. L.Neurochemical mechanisms in the affective disorders and neuroendocrine correlates. J. Clin. Psychopharmacol., 1981: 1, 180–185.
8.
JohnsonG. F. S.Endocrine dysfunction in depression. In BeumontP. J. V.BurrowsG. D. eds. Handbook of Psychiatry and Endocrinology., Elsevier Biomedical Press, Amsterdam, 1982: 239–266.
9.
van PraagH. M.The significance of biological factors in the diagnosis of depressions: II Hormonal variables. Compreh. Psychiatry, 1982: 23, 216–226.
10.
AydF. J.Drug-induced depression — fact or fallacy. N. Y. Med. J., 1958: 58, 354–356.
11.
PareC. M. B.SandlerM.A clinical and biochemical study of a trial of iproniazid in the treatment of depression. J. Neurol. Neurosurg. Psychiatry, 1959: 22, 247–251.
12.
GlowinskiJ.AxelrodJ.Inhibition of uptake of tritiated noradrenaline in the intact rat brain by imipramine and structurally related compounds. Nature, 1964: 204, 1318–1319.
13.
BaldessariniR. J.The basis for amine hypotheses in affective disorders. A critical evaluation. Arch. Gen. Psychiatry, 1975: 32, 1087–1093.
14.
WillnerP., Dopamine and depression: a review of recent evidence. I. Empirical studies. Brain Res. Rev., 1983: 6, 211–224.
15.
van PraagH. M.Central monoamine metabolism in depressions. I. Serotonin and related compounds. Compreh. Psychiatry, 1980: 21, 30–43.
16.
LinnoilaM.VirkkunenM.ScheminM.Low cerebrospinal fluid 5-hydroxyindoleacetic acid concentration differentiates impulsive from non-impulsive violent behaviour. Life Sciences, 1983: 33, 2609–2614.
17.
MaasJ. W.Clinical and biochemical heterogeneity of depressive disorders. Ann. Int. Med., 1978: 88, 556–563.
18.
SchatzbergA. F.RosenbaumA. H.OrsulakP. J.Toward a biochemical classification of depressive disorders III Pre-treatment urinary MHPG levels as predictors of response to treatment with maprotiline. Psychopharmacol., 1981: 75, 34–38.
19.
VeithR. C.BielskiR. J.BloomV.Urinary MHPG excretion and treatment with desipramine or amitriptyline: prediction of response, effect of treatment, and methodological hazards. J. Clin. Psychopharmacol., 1983: 3, 18–27.
20.
BlomberyP. A.KopinI. J.GordonE. K.Conversion of MHPG to vanillylmandelic acid: implications for the importance of urinary MHPG. Arch. Gen. Psychiatry, 1980: 37, 1095–1098.
21.
CreeseI.SibleyD. R.Receptor adaptations to centrally acting drugs. Ann. Rev. Pharmacol. Toxicol., 1981: 21, 357–391.
22.
LangerS. Z.BrileyM.High-affinity 3H-imipramine binding: a new biological tool for studies in depression. Trends Neuro Sci., 1981: 4, 28–31.
23.
Garcia-SevillaJ. A.Garcia-VallejoP.GuimonJ.Enhanced α2-adrenoceptor-mediated platelet aggregation in patients with major depressive disorder. Eu. J. Pharmacol., 1983: 94, 359–360.
24.
CheckleyS. A.Neuroendocrine tests of monoamine function in man: a review of basic theory and it's application to the study of depressive illness. Psychol. Med., 1980: 10, 35–53.
StokesP. E.Pituitary suppression in psychiatric patients The Endocrine Society. (U.S.A.), 1966: 48th Meeting Abstracts.
29.
CarrollB. J.MartinF. I. R.DaviesB. M.Resistance to suppression by dexamethasone of plasma 11 — OHCS levels in severe depressive illness. Brit. Med. J., 1968: 3, 285–287.
30.
CarrollB. J.FeinbergM.GredenJ. F.A specific laboratory test for the diagnosis of melancholia. Stanadardisation, validation, and clinical utility. Arch. Gen. Psychiatry, 1981: 38, 15–22.
31.
CarrollB. J.The dexamethasone suppression test for melancholia. Br. J. Psychiat., 1982: 140, 292–304.
32.
RushA. J.SchlesserM. A.GilesD. E.The effect of dosage on the dexamethasone suppression test in normal controls. Psychiat. Res., 1982: 7, 277–285.
33.
BrownW. A.DaamenM.D'AgostineC.Cortisol level response to 1- and 2-mg. doses of dexamethasone. Am. J. Psychiatry, 1983: 140, 609–611.
34.
PepperG. M.DavisK. L.DavisB. M.DST in depression is unaffected by altering the clock time of its administration. Psychiat. Res., 1983: 8, 105–109.
35.
MeltzerH. Y.FangV. S.Cortisol determination and the dexamethasone suppression test: a review. Arch. Gen. Pschiatry., 1983: 40, 501–505.
36.
CaroffS.WinokurA.RiegerW.Response to dexamethasone in psychotic depression. Psychiat. Res., 1983: 8, 59–64.
37.
CoppenA.Abou-SalehM.MillnP.Dexamethasone suppression test in depression and other psychiatric illness. Brit. J. Psychiatry, 1983: 142, 498–504.
38.
StokesP. E.StollP. M.KoslowS. H.Pretreatment DST and hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenocortical function in depressed patients and comparison groups. Arch. Gen. Psychiatry, 1984: 41, 257–267.
39.
HallstromT.SamuelssonS.BalldinJ.Abnormal dexamethasone suppression test in normal females. Br. J. Psychiatry, 1983: 142, 489–497.
40.
SparJ. E.GernerR.Does the dexamethasone suppression test distinguish dementia from depression?Am. J. Psychiatry, 1982: 139, 238–240.
41.
RaskindM.PeskindE.RivardM. F.Dexamethasone suppression test and Cortisol circadian rhythm in primary degenerative dementia. Am. J. Psychiatry, 1982: 139, 1468–1471.
42.
BalldinJ.GottfriesG-G.KarlssonI.Dexamethasone suppression test and serum prolactin in dementia disorders. Br. J. Psychiatry, 1983: 143, 277–281.
43.
DewanM. J.PandurangiA. K.BoucherM. L.Abnormal dexamethasone suppression test results in chronic schizophrenic patients. Am. J. Psychiatry, 1982: 139, 1501–1503.
GrahamP. M.BoothJ.BorangaG.The dexamethasone suppression test in mania. J. Affect. Dis., 1982: 4, 201–211.
46.
AranaG. W.BarreiraP. J.CohenB. M.The dexamethasone suppression test in psychotic disorders. Am. J. Psychiatry, 1983: 1521–1523.
47.
CarrollB. J.GredenJ. F.FeinbergM.Neuroendocrine evaluation of depression in borderline patients. Psychiat. Clin. Nth. Am., 1981: 4, 89–100.
48.
SoloffP. H.GeorgeA.NathanR. S.The dexamethasone suppression test in patients with borderline personality disorders. Am. J. Psychiatry, 1982: 139, 1621–1623.
49.
BlumerD.ZorickF.HeilbronnM.Biological markers for depression in chronic pain. J. Nerv. Ment. Dis., 1982: 170, 425–428.
50.
RihmerZ.SzadoczkyE.AratoM.Dexamethasone suppression test in masked depression. J. Affect. Dis., 1983: 5, 293–296.
51.
BloodworthR. C.The use of the dexamethasone suppression test in the differential diagnosis of catatonic stupor. Int. J. Psychiat. Med., 1982–83: 12, 93–101.
CarrollB. J.SchroederK.MukhopadhyayS.Plasma dexamethasone concentrations and Cortisol suppression response in patients with endogenous depression. J. Clin. Endo. Metab., 1980: 51, 433–437.
54.
HolsboerF.HaackD.GerkenA.Plasma dexamethasone concentrations and differential suppression response of Cortisol and corticosterone in depressives and controls. Biol. Psychiatry, 1984: 19, 281–291.
55.
MeikleA. W.Dexamethasone suppression tests: usefulness of simultaneous measurement of plasma Cortisol and dexamethasone. Clin. Endo., 1982: 16, 401–408.
56.
HolsboerF.WinterK.DoerrH. G.Dexamethasone suppression test in female patients with endogenous depression: determinations of plasma corticosterone, 11-deoxycorticosterone, 11-deoxycortisol, Cortisol and cortisone. Psychoneuroendocrinol., 1982: 7, 329–338.
57.
PietersC. F. F. M.HermusA. R. M. M.SmalsA. G. H.Responsiveness of the hypophyseal-adrenocortical axis to corticotropin-releasing factor in pituitary-dependent Cushing's disease. J. Clin. Endo. Metab., 1983: 57, 513–516.
58.
HolsboerF.GerkenA.SteigerA.Corticotropin-releasing-factor induced pituitary-adrenal response in depression. The Lancet, 1984: 1, 55.
59.
GoldP. W.ChrousosG.KellnerC.Psychiatric implications of basic and clinical studies with corticotropin-releasing factor. Am. J Psychiatry, 1984: 141, 619–627.
60.
CarrollB. J.FeinbergM.GredenJ. F.Diagnosis of endogenous depression: comparison of clinical, research and neuroendocrine criteria. J. Affect. Dis., 1980: 2, 177–194.
61.
HoldenN. L.Depression and the Newcastle Scale: their relationship to the dexamethasone suppression test. Br. J. Psychiat., 1983: 142, 505–507.
62.
KasperS.BeckmannH.Dexamethasone suppression test in a pluridiagnostic approach: it's relationship to psychopathological and clinical variables. Acta Psychiat. Scand., 1983: 68, 31–37.
63.
AsnisG. M.HalbreichU.NathanR. S.The dexamethasone suppression test in depressive illness: clinical correlates. Psychoneuroendocrinol., 1982: 7, 295–301.
64.
MendlewiczJ.CharlesG.FrancksonJ. M.The dexamethasone suppression test in affective disorder: relationship to clinical and genetic subgroups. Br. J. Psychiatry, 1982: 141, 464–470.
65.
RothschildA. J.SchatzbergA. F.RosenbaumA. H.The dexamethasone suppression test as a discriminator among subtypes of psychotic patients. Br. J. Psychiatry, 1982: 141, 471–474.
66.
SchatzbergA. F.RothschildA. J.StahlJ. B.The dexamethasone suppression test: identification of subtypes of depression. Am. J. Psychiatry, 1983: 140, 88–91.
67.
TargumS. D.RosenL.CapondannoA. E.The dexamethasone suppression test in suicidal patients with unipolar depression. Am. J. Psychiat., 1983: 140, 877–879.
68.
CoryellW.SchlesserM. A.Suicide and the dexamethasone suppression test in unipolar depression. Am. J. Psychiatry, 1981: 138, 1120–1121.
69.
CoryellW.GaffneyG.BurkhardtP. E.The dexamethasone suppression test and familial subtypes of depression — a naturalistic replication. Biol. Psychiatry., 1982: 17, 33–40.
70.
SchlesserM. A.WinokurG.ShermanB. M.Hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis activity in depressive illness; its relationship to classification. Arch. Gen. Psychiatry, 1980: 37, 737–743.
71.
TargumS. D.ByrnesS. M.SullivanA. C.Subtypes of unipolar depression distinguished by the dexamethasone suppression test. J. Affect. Dis., 1982: 4, 21–27.
72.
GredenJ. F.GardnerR.KingD.Dexamethasone suppression tests in anti-depressant treatment of melancholia: the process of normalisation and test-retest reproducibility. Arch. Gen. Psychiatry., 1983: 40, 493–500.
73.
AlbalaA. A.GredenJ. F.TarikaJ.Changes in serial dexamethasone suppression tests among unipolar depressives receiving electroconvulsive treatment. Biol. Psychiatry, 1981: 16, 551–560.
74.
HolsboerF.LieblR.HofschusterE.Repealed dexamethasone suppression test during depressive illness: normalisation of test result compared with clinical improvement. J. Affect. Dis., 1982: 4, 93–101.
75.
TargumS. D.The application of serial neuroendocrine challenge studies in the management of depressive disorder. Biol. Psychiatry, 1983: 18, 3–19.
76.
TargumS. D.Persistent neuroendocrine dysregulation in major depressive disorder: a marker for early relapse. Biol. Psychiat., 1984: 19, 305–318.
77.
HolsboerF.SteigerA.MaierW.Four cases of reversion to abnormal dexamethasone suppression test response as indicator of clinical relapse: a preliminary report. Biol. Psychiat., 1983: 18, 911–916.
78.
BrownW. A.QuallsC. B.Pituitary-adrenal disinhibition in depression: marker of a subtype with characteristic clinical features and response to treatment. Psychiat. Res., 1981: 4, 115–128.
79.
FraserA. R.Choice of anti-depressant based on the dexamethasone suppression test. Am. J. Psychiatry, 1983: 140, 786–787.
80.
GredenJ. F.KronfolZ.GardnerR.Dexamethasone suppression test and selection of anti-depressant medications. J. Affect. Dis., 1981: 3, 389–396.
81.
AmsterdamJ. D.WinokurA.BryantS.The dexamethasone suppression test as a predictor of anti-depressant response. Psychopharmacol., 1983: 80, 43–46.
82.
PeselowE. D.FieveR. R.Dexamethasone suppression test and response to anti-depressants in depressed outpatients. N. Engl. J. Med., 1982: 307, 1216–1217.
83.
RushA. J.Cognitive therapy of depression: rationale techniques and efficacy. Psychiat. Clin. N. Am., 1983: 6, 105–127.
84.
CheckleyS. A.CrammerJ. L.Hormone responses to methylamphetamine in depression: a new approach to the noradrenaline depletion hypothesis. Br. J. Psychiatry, 1977: 131, 582–586,.
85.
SacharE. J.HalbreichU.AsnisG. M.Paradoxical Cortisol responses to dextroamphetamine in endogenous depression. Arch. Gen. Psychiatry, 1981: 38. 1113–1117.
86.
ReinbergM.GredenJ. F.CarrollB. J.The effect of amphetamine on plasma Cortisol in patients with endogenous and non-endogenous depression. Psychoneuroendocrinol., 1981: 6, 355–357.
87.
ColdP. W.ExteinI.PickarD.Suppression of plasma Cortisol in depressed patients by acute intravenous methadone infusion. Am. J. Psychiatry, 1980: 137, 862–864.
88.
SieverL. J.UhdeT. W.JimersonD. C.Plasma Cortisol response to clonidine in depressed patients and controls: evidence for a possible alteration in noradrenergic-neuroendocrine relationships. Arch. Gen. Psychiatry, 1984: 41, 63–68.
89.
MeltzerH. Y.Umberkoman-WiitaB.RobertsonA.Effect of 5-hydroxytryptophon on serum Cortisol levels in major affective disorders. I. Enhanced response in depression and mania. Arch. Gen. Psychiatry., 1984: 41, 366–374.
90.
MeltzerH. Y.PerlineR.TricouB. J.Effect of 5-hydroxytryptophan on serum cortisol levels in major affective disorders. II Relation to suicide, psychosis, and depressive symptoms. Arch. Gen. Psychiatry, 1984: 41, 379–387.
91.
LoosenP. T.PrangeA. J.Serum thyrotropin response to thyrotropin-releasing hormone in psychiatric patients: a review. Am. J. Psychiatry, 1982: 139, 405–416.
92.
KirkegaardC.BjorumN.CohnD.Thyrotrophin-releasing hormone (TRH) stimulation test in manic-depressive illness. Arch. Gen. Psychiatry, 1978: 35, 1017–1021.
93.
GoldM.S.PottashA. L. C.ExteinI.The TRH test in the diagnosis of major and minor depression. Psychoneuroendocrinol., 1981: 6, 159–169.
94.
LoosenP. T.WilsonI. C.DewB. W.Thyrotropin-releasing hormone (TRH) in abstinent alcoholic men. Am. J. Psychiatry, 1983: 140, 1145–1149.
95.
BeumontP. J. V.GeorgeG. C. W.PimstoneB. L.The pituitary response to hypothalamic-releasing hormones in patients with anorexia nervosa. J. Clin. Endo. Metab., 1976: 43, 487–496.
96.
KirkegaardC.The thyrotropin response to thyrotropin-releasing hormone in endogenous depression. Psychoneuroendocrinol., 1981: 6, 189–212.
97.
O'ShanickG. J.EllinwoodE. H.Persistent elevation of thyroid-stimulating hormone in women with bipolar affective disorder. Am. J. Psychiatry, 1982: 139, 513–514.
98.
CowdryR. W.WehrT. A.ZisA. P.Thyroid abnormalities associated with rapid-cycling bipolar illness. Arch. Gen. Psychiatry, 1983: 40, 414–420.
99.
ExteinI.PottashA. L. C.GoldM. S.Does subclinical hypothyroidism predispose to tricyclic-induced rapid mood cycles?J. Clin. Psychiatry, 1982: 43, 290–291.
100.
SacharE. J.FinkelsteinJ.HellmanL.Growth hormone responses to depressive illness. 1. Response to insulin tolerance test. Arch. Gen. Psychiatry, 1971: 25, 263–269.
101.
CasperR. C.DavisJ. M.PandeyG.Neuroendocrine and amine studies in affective illness. Psychoneuroendocrinol., 1977: 2, 105–113.
102.
Puig-AntichJ.TabriziM. A.DaviesM.Prepubertal endogenous major depressives hyposecrete growth hormone in response to insulin-induced hypoglycemia. Biol. Psychiatry, 1981: 16, 801–818.
103.
Puig-AntichJ.NovacenkoH.DaviesM.Growth Hormone secretion in prepubertal children with major depression. Arch. Gen. Psychiatry, 1984: 41, 455–462.
104.
KoslowS. H.StokesP. E.MendelsJ.Insulin tolerance test: human growth hormone response and insulin resistance in primary unipolar depressed, bipolar depressed and control subjects. Psychol. Med., 1982: 12, 45–55.
105.
LangerG.HeinzeG.ReimB.Reduced growth hormone responses to amphetamine in endogenous depressive patients. Arch. Gen. Psychiatry, 1976: 33, 1471–1475.
106.
HalbreichU.SacharE. J.AsnisG. M.Growth hormone response to dextroamphetamine in depressed patients and normal subjects. Arch. Gen. Psychiatry, 1982: 39, 189–192.
107.
MatussekN.AchenheilM.HippiusH.Effect of clonidine on growth hormone release in psychiatric patients and controls. Psychiat. Res., 1980: 2, 25–36.
108.
CheckleyS. A.SladeA. P.ShurE.Growth hormone and other responses to clonidine in patients with endogenous depression. Br. J. Psychiatry, 1981: 138, 51–55.
109.
SieverL. J.UhdeT. W.SilbermanE. K.Growth hormone response to clonidine as a probe of noradrenergic receptor responsiveness in affective disorder patients and controls. Psychiat. Res., 1982: 6, 171–183.
110.
CharneyD. S.HeningerG. R.SternbergD. E.Adrenergic receptor sensitivity in depression: effects of clonidine in depressed patients and healthy subjects. Arch. Gen. Psychiatry, 1982: 39, 290–294.
111.
CornT. H.HaleA. S.ThompsonC.A comparison of the growth hormone responses 10 clonidine and apomorphine in the same patients with endogenous depression. Br. J. Psychiatry, 1984: 144, 636–639.
112.
HalbreichU.GrunhausBen-David M.24-hour rhythm of prolactin in depressive patients. Arch. Gen. Psychiatry, 1979: 36, 1183–1186.
113.
MeddlewiczJ.van CauterE.LinkowskiP.The 24-hour profile of prolactin in depression. Life Sciences, 1980: 27, 2015–2024.
114.
JuddL. L.RischS. C.ParkerD. C.Blunted prolactin response: a neuroendocrine abnormality manifested by depressed patients. Arch. Gen. Psychiatry, 1982: 39, 1413–1416.
115.
HeningerG. R.CharneyD. S.SternbergD. E.Serotonergic function in depression: prolactin response to intravenous tryptophan in depressed patients and healthy subjects. Arch. Gen. Psychiatry, 1984: 41, 298–402.
116.
SieverL. J.MurphyD. L.SlaterS.Plasma prolactin changes following fenfluramine in depressed patients compared to controls: an evaluation of central serotonergic responsivity in depression. Life Sciences, 1984: 34, 1029–1039.
117.
HullinR. P.JerramT. C.LeeM. R.Renin and aldosterone relationships in manic depressive psychosis. Br. J. Psychiatry, 1977: 131, 575–581.
LakeC. R.PickarD.ZieglerM. G.High plasma norepinephrine levels in patients with major affective disorder. Am. J. Psychiatry, 1982: 139, 1315–1318.
120.
BarnesR. F.VeithR. C.BorsonS.High levels of plasma catecholamines in dexamethasone-resistant depressed patients. Am. J. Psychiatry, 1983: 140, 1623–1625.
121.
GernerR. H.YamadaT.Altered neuropeptide concentrations in cerebrospinal fluid of psychiatric patients. Brain Res., 1982: 238, 298–302.
122.
RubinowD. R.GoldP. W.PostR. M.CSF somatostatin in affective illness. Arch. Gen. Psychiatry, 1983: 40, 409–412.
123.
SacharE. J.AsnisG.HalbreichU.Recent studies in the neuroendocrinology of major depressive disorders. Psychiat. Clin. North Am., 1980: 3, 313–326.
124.
DavisK. L.HollisterL. E.MatheA. A.Neuroendocrine and neurochemical measurements in depression. Am. J. Psychiatry, 1981: 138, 1555–1561.
125.
RosenbaumA. H.MarutaT.SchatzbergA. F.Toward a biochemical classification of depressive disorders, VII: Urinary-free Cortisol and urinary MHPG in depressions. Am. J. Psychiatry., 1983: 140, 314–318.
126.
AgrenH.WideL.Patterns of depression reflected in pituitary-thyroid and pituitary-adrenal endocrine changes. Psychoneuroendocrinol., 1982: 7, 309–327.
127.
JimersonD. C.InselT. R.ReusV. I.Increased plasma MHPG in dexamethasone-resistant depressed patients. Arch. Gen. Psychiatry, 1983: 40, 173–176.
128.
SternbackH.GwirtsmanH.GernerR. H.The dexamethasone suppression test and response to methylphenidate in depression. Am. J. Pychiatry, 1981: 138, 1629–1631.
129.
BrownP.BrawleyP.Dexamethasone suppression test and mood response to methylphenidate in primary depression. Am. J. Psychiatry, 1983: 140, 990–993.
130.
EttigiP. G.HayesP. E.NarasimhachariN.d-Amphetamine response and dexamethasone suppression test as predictors of treatment outcome in unipolar depression. Bio. Psychiatry, 1983: 18, 449–504.
131.
JoyceP. R.Mood response to methylphenidate and the dexamethasone suppression test as predictors of treatment response to zimelidine and lithium in major depression. Biol. Psychiatry, 1985: (in press).
132.
SilbermanE. K.ReusV. I.JimersonD. S.Hetrogeneity of amphetamine response in depressed patients. Am. J. Psychiatry, 1981: 138, 1302–1307.
133.
CarrollB. J.GredenJ. F.HaskettR.Neurotransmitter studies of neuroendocrine pathology in depression. Acta Psychiat. Scand. Suppl., 1980: 280, 61, 183–199.
134.
BankiC. M.AratoM.PappZ.Cerebrospinal fluid biochemical examinations: do they reflect clinical or biological differences?Biol. Psychiatry, 1983: 1033–1044.
135.
LewisD. A.KatholR. G.HermanB. M.Differentiation of depressive subtypes by insulin insensitivity in the recovered phase. Arch. Gen. Psychiatry, 1983: 40, 167–170.
136.
NathanR. S.SacharE. J.AsnisG. M.Relative insulin insensitivity and Cortisol secretion in depressed patients. Psychiat. Res., 1981: 4, 291–300.
137.
MeltzerH. Y.FangV. S.TricouB. J.Effect of dexamethasone on plasma prolactin and Cortisol levels in psychiatric patients. Am. J. Psychiatry., 1982: 139, 763–768.
138.
JoyceP. R.DonaldR. A.LiveseyJ. H.A relationship between prolactin levels and dexamethasone suppression test results in major depressive disorder. J. Affect. Dis., 1985: (in press).
139.
SchatzbergA. F.OrsulakP. J.RothschildA. J.Platelet MAO activity and the dexamethasone suppression test in depressed patients. Am. J. Psychiatry, 1983: 140, 1231–1233.
140.
RushA. J.SchlesserM. A.RoffwargH. P.Relationships among the TRH, REM latency, and dexamethasone suppression tests: preliminary findings. J. Clin. Psychiatry, 1983: 44, 23–29.
141.
AsnisG. M.HalbreichU.SacharE. J.Plasma Cortisol secretion and REM period latency in adult endogenous depression. Am. J. Psychiatry, 1983: 140, 750–753.
142.
FeinbergM.CarrollB. J.Biological markers for endogenous depression in series and parallel. Biol. Psychiatry, 1984: 19, 3–11.
143.
JanowskyD. S.El-YousefM. K.DavisJ. M.A cholinergic-adrenergic hypothesis of mania and depression. Lancet, 1972: 2, 632–635.
144.
McCarleyR. W.REM sleep and depression: common neurobiological control mechanisms. Am. J. Psychiatry, 1982: 139, 565–570.
145.
KirkegaardC.CarrollB. J.Dissociation of TSH and adrenocortical disturbances in endogenous depression. psychiat. Res., 1980: 3, 253–264.
146.
ExteinI.PottashA. L. C.GoldM. S.Relationship of thyrotropin-releasing hormone test and dexamethasone suppression test abnormalities in unipolar depression. Psychiat. Res., 1981: 4, 49–53.
147.
ExteinI.KirsteinL. S.PottashA. L. C.The dexamethasone suppression and thyrotropin-releasing hormone tests and response to treatment in unipolar depression. Int. J. Psychiat. Med., 1982–83: 12, 267–274.
148.
TargumS. D.SullivanA. C.ByrnesS. M.Neuroendocrine inter-relationships in major depressive disorder. Am. J. Psychiatry, 1982: 139, 282–286.
149.
BankiC. M.AratoM.PappZ.Biochemical markers in suicidal patients: investigations with cerebrospinal fluid amine metabolites and neuroendocrine tests. J. Affect. Dis., 1984: 6, 341–350.
150.
GoldP. W.GoodwinF. K.WehrT.Pituitary thyrotropin response to thyrotropin-releasing hormone in affective illness — relationship to spinal fluid amine metabolites. Am. J. Psychiatry, 1977: 134, 1028–1031.
151.
CobleP. A.KupferD. J.SpikerD. G.EEC sleep in primary depression. A longitudinal placebo study. J. Affect. Dis., 1979: 1, 131–138.
152.
AkiskalH. S.Dysthymic disorder: psychopathology of proposed chronic depressive subtypes. Am. J. Psychiatry, 1983: 140, 11–20.
153.
AkiskalH. S.Subaffective disorders: dysthymic, cyclothymic, and bipolar II disorders in the “borderline” realm. Psychiat. Clin. North Am., 1981: 4, 25–46.
154.
KupferD. J.ThaseM. E.The use of the sleep laboratory in the diagnosis of affective disorders. Psychiat. Clin. North Am., 1983: 6, 3–25.
155.
AkiskalH. S.LemmiH.Clinical, neuroendocrine, and sleep EEG diagnosis of ‘unusual’ affective presentations: a practical review. Psychiat. Clin. North Am., 1983: 6, 69–83.
156.
AbramsR.TaylorM. A.Catalonia. A prospective clinical study. Arch. Gen. Psychiatry, 1976: 33, 579–581.
