With a perspective from evolutionary biology and a view of the philosophy of science as described by Popper, various models of psychiatry are discussed. It is concluded that any satisfactory model must be a synthesis of the biological, psychological and social. It is argued that the concept of diagnosis is the core of the medical model, and that psychiatry is a branch of medicine, and not a social science, because the biological aspect is very important.
References
1.
AkiskalH. S.McKinneyW. T. (1975) Overview of recent research in depression. Archives of General Psychiatry, 32, 285–305.
2.
AlexanderR. D. (1971) The search for an evolutionary philosophy of man. Proceedings Royal Society Victoria, 84, 99–119.
3.
AppletonW. S. (1974) Mistreatment of patient's families by psychiatrists. American Journal of Psychiatry, 131, 655–657.
4.
ArietiS. (1977) The parents of the schizophrenic: A reconsideration. Journal American Academy of Psychoanalysis, 5, 347–358.
5.
BarberB. (1961) Resistance by scientists to scientific discovery. Science, 134, 596–602.
6.
BatesonG.JacksonD. D.HaleyJ.WeaklandJ. H. (1956) Towards a theory of schizophrenia. Behavioural Science, 1, 251–264.
7.
BlassJ. P.GibsonG. E. (1977) Abnormality of a thiamine – requiring enzyme in patients with Wernicke-Korsakoff Syndrome. New England Journal of Medicine, 297, 1367–1370.
8.
BlassJ. P.MilneJ. F.RodnightR. (1977) Newer concepts of psychiatric diagnosis and biochemical research on mental illness. Lancet, 1, 738–740.
9.
BuchsbaumM. S.CourseyR. D.MurphyD. L. (1976) The biochemical high-risk paradigm: Behavioural and familial correlates of low platelet monoamine oxidase activity. Science, 194, 339–341.
10.
BurkeA. W. (1978) Physical disorder among day hospital patients. British Journal of Psychiatry, 133, 22–27.
11.
CantwellD. P.BakerL.RutterM. (1979) Families of autistic and dysphasic children. Archives of General Psychiatry, 36, 682–687.
12.
CarkhuffR. R.BerensonB. G. (1977) Beyond Counselling and Therapy.2nd Edition. Holt, Rinehart and Winston.
13.
ClareA. W. (1976) Psychiatry in Dissent, Controversial Issues in Thought and Practice.Tavistock Publications.
14.
College Of General Practitioners Report (1960) A survey of the epilepsies in general practice. British Medical Journal, 2, 416–422.
15.
EisenbergL. (1977) Psychiatry and society. A sociobiologic synthesis. New England Journal of Medicine, 296, 903–910.
16.
EngelG. L. (1977) The need for a new medical model: A challenge for biomedicine. Science, 196, 129–136.
17.
EysenckH. J. (1975) The Future of Psychiatry.Methuen, London.
18.
Flor-HenryP. (1976) Epilepsy and psychopathology. Recent Advances in Clinical Psychiatry, 2, 262–295.
19.
FrankJ. (1977) Psychiatry: The healthy invalid. American Journal of Psychiatry, 134, 1349–1355.
GrahamP.RutterM. (1968) Organic brain dysfunction and child psychiatric disorder. British Medical Journal, 3, 695–700.
22.
GuzeS. B. (1977) The future of psychiatry: Medicine or social science?Journal of Nervous and Mental Disease, 165, 225–230.
23.
GuzeS. B. (1978) Nature of psychiatric illness: Why psychiatry is a branch of medicine. Comprehensive Psychiatry, 19, 295–307.
24.
HendrieH. C. (1978) Organic brain disorders. Psychiatric Clinics of North America, 1, 3–19.
25.
Herceg-BaronR. L.PrusoffB. A.WeissmanM. M.di MascioA.NeuC.KlermanG. (1979) Pharmacotherapy and psychotherapy in acutely depressed patients. A study of attrition patterns in a clinical trial. Comprehensive Psychiatry, 20, 315–325.
26.
HorrobinD. (1977) Medical Hubris: A Reply to Ivan Illich.Churchill Livingstone.
27.
HuxleyJ. (1964) Psychometabolism: General and Lorenzian. Perspectives in Biology and Medicine, 7, 399–432.
28.
KendellR. E. (1975) The Role of Diagnosis in Psychiatry.Blackwell Scientific Publications.
29.
KerrW. C. (1974) The importance of physical illness in psychiatric breakdown. Australian and New Zealand Journal of Psychiatry, 8, 269–271.
30.
KetyS. S. (1974) From rationalization to reason. American Journal of Psychiatry, 131, 957–963.
31.
KleinmanA.EisenbergL.GoodB. (1978) Culture, illness and care: Clinical lessons from anthropologic and cross-cultural research. Annals of Internal Medicine, 88, 251–258.
32.
LeffJ. (1978) Social and psychological causes of the acute attack. Schizophrenia: Towards a New Synthesis, (Edited WingJ. K.) Academic Press.
33.
LewisA. (1963) Medicine and the affections of the mind. British Medical Journal, 2, 1549–1557.
34.
LipowskiZ. J. (1975) Psychiatry of somatic diseases: Epidemiology, pathogenesis, classification. Comprehensive Psychiatry, 16, 105–124.
35.
LishmanW. A. (1978) Organic Psychiatry: The Psychological Consequences of Cerebral Disorder.Blackwell Scientific Publications.
36.
MaguireG. P.Granville-GrossmanK. L. (1968) Physical illness in psychiatric patients. British Journal of Psychiatry, 115, 1365–1369.
37.
MarksI. M. (1976) The current status of behavioural psychotherapy: Theory and practice. American Journal of Psychiatry, 133, 253–261.
38.
MinskiL. (1933) The mental symptoms associated with 58 cases of cerebral tumour. Journal of Neurology and Psychopathology, 13, 330–343. (Quoted in Lishman W. A. (1978) q.v. p292).
39.
MooreM. S. (1975) Some myths about ‘mental illness’. Archives of General Psychiatry, 32, 1483–1497.
40.
MurphyJ. M. (1976) Psychiatric labelling in cross cultural perspective. Science, 191, 1019–1028.
41.
MurrayR. M. (1979) A reappraisal of American psychiatry. Lancet.1, 225–258.
42.
OrnitzE. M.RitvoE. R. (1976) The syndrome of autism: A critical review. American Journal of Psychiatry, 133, 609–621.
PattonR. B.SheppardJ. A. (1956) Intracranial tumours found at autopsy in medical patients. American Journal of Psychiatry, 113, 319–324.
45.
PaykelE. S.di MascioA.HaskellD.PrusoffB. A. (1975) Effects of maintenance amitriptyline and psychotherapy on symptoms of depression. Psychological Medicine, 5, 67–77.
46.
PiesR. (1979) On myths and countermyths: More on Szaszian fallacies. Archives of General Psychiatry, 36, 139–144.
47.
PolonioP. (1971) Body-mind problems from an empirical point of view. British Journal of Psychiatry, 118, 7–10.
48.
PondD. A.BidwellB. H. (1960) A survey of epilepsy in 14 general practices. II. Social and psychological aspects. Epilepsia, 1, 285–299.
49.
PopperK. R. (1959) The Logic of Scientific Discovery.Hutchinson, London.
50.
PopperK. R. (1972) Objective Knowledge: An Evolutionary Approach.Oxford University Press.
51.
PopperK. R. (1976) Unended Quest: An Intellectual Autobiography.Fontana/Collins.
52.
RosenhanD. L. (1973) On being sane in insane places. Science, 179, 250–258.
53.
RutterM. (1971) Normal psychosexual development. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 11, 259–283.
SandlerM.RuthvenC. R. J.GoodwinB. L.FieldH.MatthewsR. (1978) Phenylethylamine overproduction in aggressive psychopaths. Lancet, 2, 1269–1270.
56.
ScheffT. J. (1974) The labelling theory of mental illness. American Sociological Review, 39, 444–452.
57.
SchlesserM. A.WinokurG.ShermanB. M. (1979) Genetic subtypes of unipolar primary depressive illness distinguished by hypothalamic - pituitary - adrenal axis activity. Lancet, 1, 739–741.
58.
ShieldsJ. (1978) Genetics. Schizophrenia: Towards a New Synthesis. (Edited by WingJ. K.) Academic Press.
59.
SzaszT. S. (1960) The myth of mental illness. The American Psychologist, 15, 113–118.
60.
TorreyE. F. (1974) The Death of Psychiatry. Chilton Book Company, Radnor.
61.
van PraagH. M. (1978) The scientific foundations of anti-psychiatry. Acta Psychiatrica Scandinavia, 58, 113–141.
62.
van PraggH. M. (1979) Psychopsychiatry: Can psychosocial factors cause psychiatric disorders?Comprehensive Psychiatry, 20, 215–225.
63.
van WoertM. H.YipL. C.BalisM. E. (1977) Purine phosphoribosyl-transferase in Gilles de la Tourette Syndrome. New England Journal of Medicine, 296, 210–212.
64.
WaxlerN. E. (1977) Is mental illness cured in traditional societies? A theoretical analysis. Culture, Medicine and Psychiatry, 1, 233–253.
65.
WeinerH. (1978) The illusion of simplicity. The medical model revisited. American Journal of Psychiatry, 135, July Supplement 27–33.
66.
WellsC. E. (1978) Chronic brain disease: An overview. American Journal of Psychiatry, 135, 1–12.
67.
WestermeyerJ.KrollJ. (1978) Violence and mental illness in a peasant society. Characteristics of violent behaviours and ‘folk’ use of restraints. British Journal of Psychiatry, 133, 529–541.
68.
WestermeyerJ.WintrobR. (1979) ‘Folk' criteria for the diagnosis of mental illness in rural Laos: On being insane in sane places. American Journal of Psychiatry, 136, 755–761.
69.
WeinberberKillam (1979) Learning and behavioural abnormalities in the seizure - prone baboon. Biological Psychiatry.14, 525–535.
70.
WingJ. K. (1978a) Reasoning About Madness.Oxford University Press, Oxford.
71.
WingJ. K. (1978b) Clinical concepts of schizophrenia. Schizophrenia: Towards a New Synthesis. (Edited by WingJ. K.) Academic Press.
72.
WingJ. K. (1978) The social context of schizophrenia. American Journal of Psychiatry, 135, 1333–1339.
73.
WinklerR. C. (1974) Research into mental health practice using pseudopatients. Medical Journal of Australia, 2, 399–403.
74.
WinokurG. (1979) Unipolar depression; Is it divisible into autonomous subtypes?Archives of General Psychiatry, 36, 47–52.
75.
World Health Organisation (1973) The International Pilot Study of Schizophrenia. Geneva.
76.
YoungJ. Z. (1972) Some facts about the problems of brains and minds. Search, 3, 319–322.
