Contested Justice: Rethinking Educational Equity Through New York City’s COVID-19 School Reopening Debates

Abstract

This study examines competing justice claims that stakeholders policymakers, district leaders, families, and educators evoked during the 2020 COVID-19 New York City school reopening debates. Drawing on thematic analysis of 300 news and opinion articles, we examine stakeholders’ overlapping and contested understandings of justice in public education, including claims related to how school resources are distributed, whom district policies recognize, and who is represented in policymaking. In addition to deepening our understanding of the educational politics of the COVID-19 pandemic—an event with field-changing consequences—our analysis offers researchers and policymakers a more robust basis for advancing equity and conceptualizing just educational policy for multiple stakeholders.

Keywords

equity educational policy politics social justice urban education qualitative research content analysis

Get full access to this article

View all access options for this article.

References

Abu El-Haj

T. R

. (2006). Elusive justice: Wrestling with difference and educational equity in everyday practice. Routledge.

Algar

(2020, August 31). Teachers union chief says strike still in play if city doesn’t meet demands. New York Post. https://nypost.com/2020/08/31/teachers-union-chief-says-strike-still-in-play-if-city-doesnt-meet-demands/

Algar

Green

Feis

(2020, September 16). First day of school in NYC plagued by technical difficulties, hackers. New York Post. https://nypost.com/2020/09/16/first-day-of-school-in-nyc-plagued-by-technical-difficulties/

Allbright

T. N.

Marsh

J. A.

Hall

Toben

Picus

L. O.

Lavadez

(2019). Conceptualizing equity in the implementation of California education finance reform. American Journal of Education, 125, 173–200.

American Public Media Research Lab. (2021, March). The color of coronavirus: Covid-19 deaths by race and ethnicity in the U.S. website. American Public Media. https://www.apmresearchlab.org/covid/deaths-by-race

Amin

(2020, August 18). More than three dozen Manhattan principals join growing calls to delay in-person school. Chalkbeat New York. https://ny.chalkbeat.org/2020/8/18/21374413/more-than-three-dozen-manhattan-principals-join-growing-calls-to-delay-in-person-school

Amin

Veiga

(2020, October 1). Students return to NYC’s 1,600 schools–for now. Chalkbeat New York. https://ny.chalkbeat.org/2020/10/1/21497901/students-return-to-nycs-1600-schools-for-now

Amin

Zimmer

(2020, August 12). Principals call on NYC to delay start of in-person school. Chalkbeat New York. https://ny.chalkbeat.org/2020/8/12/21365395/principals-call-on-nyc-to-delay-start-of-in-person-school

Anderson

. (2020, October 18). “You’re out of your mind if you think I’m ever going back to school.” The New York Times. https://www.nytimes.com/2020/10/28/opinion/virtual-school-racism.html

10.

Artiga

Hill

Ndugga

(2021, September). Racial disparities in COVID-19 impacts and vaccinations for children [Issue brief]. Kaiser Family Foundation. https://www.kff.org/racial-equity-and-health-policy/issue-brief/racial-disparities-in-covid-19-impacts-and-vaccinations-for-children/

11.

Asbury

Fox

Deniz

Code

Toseeb

(2021). How is COVID-19 affecting the mental health of children with special educational needs and disabilities and their families? Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 51(5), 1772–1780. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10803-020-04577-2

12.

Bailey

D. H.

Duncan

G. J.

Murnane

R. J.

Au Yeung

(2021). Achievement gaps in the wake of COVID-19. Educational Researcher, 50(5), 266–275. https://doi.org/10.3102/0013189x211011237

13.

Bartlett

(2022). Specifying hybrid models of teachers’ work during COVID-19. Educational Researcher, 51(2), 152–155. https://doi.org/10.3102/0013189X211069399

14.

Bertrand

Perez

W. Y.

Rogers

(2015). The covert mechanisms of education policy discourse: Unmasking policy insiders’ discourses and discursive strategies in upholding or challenging racism and classism in education. Education Policy Analysis Archives, 23, 93.

15.

Bulkley

K. E.

(2013). Conceptions of equity: How influential actors view a contested concept. Peabody Journal of Education, 88(1), 10–21. https://doi.org/10.1080/0161956X.2013.752309

16.

Calabrese Barton

Tan

. (2020). Beyond equity as inclusion: A framework of “rightful presence” for guiding justice-oriented studies in teaching and learning. Educational Researcher, 49(6), 433–440. https://doi.org/10.3102/0013189X20927363

17.

Calarco

J. M.

Meanwell

Anderson

E. M.

Knopf

A. S.

(2021). By default: How mothers in different-sex dual-earner couples account for inequalities in pandemic parenting. Socius, 7, 23780231211038784. https://doi.org/10.1177/23780231211038783

18.

Camp

A. M.

Zamarro

(2022). Determinants of ethnic differences in school modality choices during the COVID-19 crisis. Educational Researcher, 51, 6–16.

19.

Carey

R. L.

(2014). A cultural analysis of the achievement gap discourse: Challenging the language and labels used in the work of school reform. Urban Education, 49(4), 440–468.

20.

Center for Budget and Policy Priorities. (2021). Covid hardship watch series. Tracking the COVID-19 recession’s effects on food, housing, and employment hardships. Center for Budget and Policy Priorities. https://www.cbpp.org/research/poverty-and-inequality/tracking-the-covid-19-recessions-effects-on-food-housing-and

21.

Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. (2021). Risk for COVID-19 infection, hospitalization, and death by race/ethnicity. https://www.cdc.gov/coronavirus/2019-ncov/covid-data/investigations-discovery/hospitalization-death-by-race-ethnicity.html

22.

Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. (2022). COVID-19–associated hospitalizations among adults during SARS-CoV-2 delta and omicron variant predominance, by race/ethnicity and vaccination status—COVID-NET, 14 states, July 2021–January 2022. Morbidity and Mortality Weekly Report, 71, 466–473. https://www.cdc.gov/mmwr/volumes/71/wr/mm7112e2.htm

23.

Chu

(2019). What are they talking about when they talk about equity? A content analysis of equity principles and provisions in state Every Student Succeeds Act plans. Education Policy Analysis Archives, 27(158), 1–30. https://doi.org/10.14507/epaa.27.4558

24.

Coleman

(1968). The concept of equality of educational opportunity. Harvard Educational Review, 38(1), 7–22.

25.

Collins

J. E.

(2021). Who wants to reopen schools in a pandemic? Explaining public preferences reopening schools and public compliance with reopening orders during the COVID-19 pandemic (EdWorkingPaper: 21-448). Annenberg Institute at Brown University. https://doi.org/10.26300/xkjk-4350

26.

Cotto

Jr. Woulfin

(2021). Choice with (out) equity? Family decisions of child return to urban schools in pandemic. Journal of Family Diversity in Education, 4(1), 42–63.

27.

Darling-Aduana

Woodyard

H. T.

Sass

T. R.

Barry

S. S.

(2022). Learning-mode choice, student engagement, and achievement growth during the COVID-19 pandemic (EdWorkingPaper: 22-536). Annenberg Institute at Brown University. https://doi.org/10.26300/jxcj-gs73

28.

Davis

C. R.

Grooms

Ortega

Rubalcaba

J. A.-A.

Vargas

(2021). Distance learning and parental mental health during COVID-19. Educational Researcher, 50(1), 61–64. https://doi.org/10.3102/0013189X20978806

29.

DeAngelis

C. A.

Makridis

(2021). Are school reopening decisions related to union influence? Social Science Quarterly, 102(5), 2266–2284.

30.

Deterding

N. M.

Waters

M. C.

(2021). Flexible coding of in-depth interviews: A twenty-first-century approach. Sociological Methods and Research, 50, 708–739. https://doi.org/10.1177/0049124118799377

31.

Diem

Young

M. D.

Sampson

(2019). Where critical policy meets the politics of education: An introduction. Educational Policy, 33(1), 3–15. https://doi.org/10.1177/0895904818807317

32.

Diem

Young

M. D.

Welton

A. D.

Mansfield

K. C.

Lee

P. L.

(2014). The intellectual landscape of critical policy analysis. International Journal of Qualitative Studies in Education, 27(9), 1068–1090. https://doi.org/10.1080/09518398.2014.916007

33.

Dumas

M. J.

(2009). Theorizing redistribution and recognition in urban education research: How do we get dictionaries at Cleveland? In Anyon

(Ed.), Theory and educational research: Toward critical social explanation (pp. 82–107). Routledge.

34.

Edelman

(2020, September 19). “Live or teach””: Activists project grim warnings on building near DOE headquarters. New York Post. https://nypost.com/2020/09/19/activists-project-grim-warnings-near-nyc-doe-headquarters/

35.

Education Week Staff. (2021, March 4). A year of COVID-19: What it looked like for schools. Education Week. https://www.edweek.org/leadership/a-year-of-covid-19-what-it-looked-like-for-schools/2021/03

36.

Elsen-Rooney

(2020a, December 13). Brooklyn principal flouted COVID-19 rules by ordering 150 staff, students to eat together in cafeteria: Staffers. New York Daily News. https://www.nydailynews.com/new-york/education/ny-brooklyn-school-cafeteria-lunch-covid-safety-20201214-llwgimwlizcsrjwfcqujfegkfu-story.html

37.

Elsen-Rooney

(2020b, October 16). Majority Black, Latino schools saw lower remote attendance last spring: analysis. New York Daily News. https://www.nydailynews.com/new-york/education/ny-remote-learning-attendance-disparities-20201015-nbqfas4ocvennajcuxiky4qqne-story.html

38.

Elsen-Rooney

(2020c, August 4). NYC homeless students should get option of full-time, in-person schooling: Advocates. New York Daily News. https://www.nydailynews.com/new-york/education/ny-nyc-homeless-student-schooling-20200804-qpkacmtgonb3dlj2yuhhqkrdhq-story.html

39.

Elsen-Rooney

Sommerfeldt

(2020, October 6). “Gut-wrenching:” More than 100 NYC public schools close in COVID-19 hotspots, just days after they reopened. New York Daily News. https://www.nydailynews.com/new-york/education/ny-public-schools-closed-hotspot-zip-codes-20201005-acngs7ue2fe5hmvcpiddcaitga-story.html

40.

Fenton

Algar

(2020, October 2). Staten Island parents demand schools fully reopen, threaten lawsuit. New York Post. https://nypost.com/2020/10/01/staten-island-parents-demand-schools-reopen-threaten-suit/

41.

Fraser

(1997). Justice interruptus: Critical reflections on the “postsocialist” condition. Psychology Press.

42.

Fraser

(2000). Rethinking recognition. New Left Review, 3, 107–120.

43.

Fraser

(2005). Reframing justice in a globalizing world. New Left Review, 36, 69–88.

44.

Freidus

(2019). “A great school benefits us all”: Advantaged parents and the gentrification of an urban public school. Urban Education, 54(8), 1–28. https://doi.org/10.1177/0042085916636656

45.

Freidus

(2020). Modes of belonging: Debating school demographics in gentrifying New York. American Educational Research Journal, 57(2), 808–839. https://doi.org/10.3102/0002831219863372

46.

Freidus

(2022). Segregation, diversity, and pathology: School quality and student demographics in gentrifying New York. Educational Policy, 36(4), 822–848.

47.

Freidus

Ewing

E. L.

(2022). Good schools, bad schools: Race, school quality, and neoliberal educational policy. Educational Policy, 36(4), 763–768. https://doi.org/10.1177/08959048221087208

48.

Gartland

Slattery

Elsen-Rooney

(2020, November 19). NYC school buildings will close at least through Thanksgiving weekend over rising COVID-19 rates. New York Daily News. https://www.nydailynews.com/news/politics/new-york-elections-government/ny-coronavirus-nyc-cuomo-de-blasio-20201118-unlr5dqvonff3b7ytaocmd6tv4-story.html

49.

Goldberg

(2020, August 25). New York’s school chaos is breaking me. The New York Times. https://www.nytimes.com/2020/08/24/opinion/new-york-public-school-reopening.html

50.

Green

R. K.

Sheehy

(2020, December 6). NYC parents protest virtual classes for older kids as K-5 students set to return. New York Post. https://nypost.com/2020/12/06/nyc-parents-protest-all-virtual-classes-for-older-kids/

51.

Grossmann

Reckhow

Strunk

K. O.

Turner

(2021). All states close but red districts reopen: The politics of in-person schooling during the COVID-19 pandemic. Educational Researcher, 50(9), 637–648.

52.

Guiton

Oakes

(1995). Opportunity to learn and conceptions of educational equality. Educational Evaluation and Policy Analysis, 17(3), 323–336.

53.

Guse

Shahrigan

(2020, September 27). Voicing “no confidence” in de Blasio, NYC principals union calls for state takeover of school reopening. New York Daily News. https://www.nydailynews.com/news/politics/ny-bill-de-blasio-richard-carranza-council-of-school-supervisors-20200927-jdbi7bkiu5fr3jucdikmvmwxn4-story.html

54.

Harris

D. N.

Oliver

D. M.

(2021). Why did so many public schools stay remote during the COVID crisis? [Policy report]. National Center for Research on Education Access and School Choice. https://reachcentered.org/publications/why-did-so-many-public-schools-stay-remote-during-the-covid-crisis

55.

Hartney

M. T.

Finger

L. K.

(2022). Politics, markets, and pandemics: Public education’s response to COVID-19. Perspectives on Politics, 20(2), 457–473.

56.

Herbel-Eisenmann

Keazer

Traynor

(2018). District decision-makers’ considerations of equity and equality related to students’ opportunities to learn algebra. Teachers College Record, 120(9), 1–38.

57.

Hicks

Musumeci

(2020, September 18). Parents, teachers slam de Blasio over last-minute delay in school openings. New York Post. https://nypost.com/2020/09/18/parents-teachers-rip-de-blasio-over-delayed-school-openings/

58.

Hodge

E. M.

(2021). Conceptions of equity in common core policy messages in a metropolitan district. The Educational Forum, 85(1), 89–106. https://doi.org/10.1080/00131725.2020.1772427

59.

Horowitz

J. M.

(2021). More Americans now say academic concerns should be a top factor in deciding to reopen K-12 schools. Pew Research Center. https://pewrsr.ch/2NrJlIB

60.

Horsford

S. D.

(2016). Social justice for the advantaged: Freedom from racial equality post-Milliken. Teachers College Record, 118(3), 1–18.

61.

Houston

D. M.

Steinberg

M. P.

(2022). Public support for educators and in-person instruction during the covid-19 pandemic (EdWorkingPaper: 22-575). Annenberg Institute at Brown University. https://doi.org/10.26300/ek3z-x247

62.

Jencks

(1988). Whom must we treat equally for educational opportunity to be equal? Ethics, 98(3), 518–533.

63.

Kim

(2020, October 14). Why parents in this high-performing school district chose all-remote learning. The New York Times. https://www.nytimes.com/2020/10/14/nyregion/nyc-coronavirus-schools-reopening.html

64.

Kretchmar

Brewer

T. J.

(2022). Neoliberalism, COVID, anti-science, and the politics of school reopening. Education Policy Analysis Archives, 30, 42–42.

65.

Ladson-Billings

(2006). From the achievement gap to the education debt: Understanding achievement in US schools. Educational Researcher, 35(7), 3–12.

66.

Landivar

L. C.

Ruppanner

Rouse

Scarborough

W. J.

Collins

(2022). Research note: School reopenings during the COVID-19 pandemic and implications for gender and racial equity. Demography, 59(1), 1–12.

67.

Lewis-Durham

T. C.

(2020). “All lives matter”: How districts co-opt equity language and maintain the status quo. Education Policy Analysis Archives, 28, 141. https://doi.org/10.14507/epaa.28.5248

68.

MacEwan

(2020, November 10). I’m a school nurse in NYC. Here’s what worries me as winter approaches. Chalkbeat New York. https://ny.chalkbeat.org/2020/11/10/21557872/school-nurse-coronavirus-winter

69.

Marianno

B. D.

Hemphill

A. A.

Loures-Elias

A. P. S.

Garcia

Cooper

Coombes

(2022). Power in a pandemic: Teachers’ unions and their responses to school reopening. AERA Open, 8, 1–16. https://doi.org/10.1177/23328584221074337

70.

Marsh

Algar

(2020, August 20). 31 NYC council members call for delay in school reopenings. New York Post. https://nypost.com/2020/08/20/31-nyc-councilmembers-call-for-delay-in-reopening-school-buildings/

71.

Marsh

Algar

Hogan

(2020, July 31). NYC is late on submitting school reopening plan, Cuomo says. New York Post. https://nypost.com/2020/07/31/nyc-is-late-on-submitting-school-reopening-plan-cuomo/

72.

Marsh

Algar

Musumeci

(2020, August 27). De Blasio standing firm on Sept. 10 reopening of NYC public schools. New York Post. https://nypost.com/2020/08/27/de-blasio-firm-on-sept-10-reopening-of-nyc-public-schools/

73.

Maxwell

(2013). Qualitative research design: An interactive approach (3rd ed.). SAGE.

74.

McDermott

K. A.

Frankenberg

Williams

S. M.

(2013). Introduction: Contesting equity in the twenty-first century. Peabody Journal of Education, 88, 1–9.

75.

Melamed

(2011). Represent and destroy: Rationalizing violence in the new racial capitalism. University of Minnesota Press.

76.

Mongelli

Agar

Musumeci

(2020, September 22). First day of in-person learning for pre-K, 3-K students kicks off in NYC. New York Post. https://nypost.com/2020/09/21/first-day-of-nyc-in-person-learning-kicks-off-for-3-k-pre-k/

77.

National Center for Educational Statistics. (2020). Fast facts. https://nces.ed.gov/fastfacts/display.asp?id=372

78.

New York City Department of Education. (2021). DOE data at a glance. https://www.schools.nyc.gov/about-us/reports/doe-data-at-a-glance

79.

Nygreen

(2016). Competing paradigms of educational justice: Parent organizing for educational equity in a neoliberal reform context. Equity & Excellence in Education, 49(2), 202–214. https://doi.org/10.1080/10665684.2016.1144832

80.

Olneck

M. R.

(1993). Terms of inclusion: Has multiculturalism redefined equality in American education? American Journal of Education, 101(3), 234–260.

81.

Omi

Winant

(2015). Racial formation in the United States. Routledge.

82.

Perlman

(2020, July 2). In the covid-19 economy, you can have a kid or a job. You can’t have both. The New York Times. https://www.nytimes.com/2020/07/02/business/covid-economy-parents-kids-career-homeschooling.html

83.

Perrillo

(2012). Uncivil rights: Teachers, unions, and race in the battle for school equity. University of Chicago Press.

84.

Rauscher

Burns

(2021). Unequal opportunity spreaders: Higher COVID-19 deaths with later school closure in the United States. Sociological Perspectives, 64(5), 831–856. https://doi.org/10.1177/07311214211005486

85.

Reich

Mehta

(2021, July 21). Healing, community, and humanity: How students and teachers want to reinvent schools post-COVID. https://doi.org/10.35542/osf.io/nd52b

86.

Roberts

Mongeli

Algar

Sheehy

(2020, August 29). NYC public school students return to class amid lingering COVID-19 concerns. New York Post. https://nypost.com/2020/09/29/nyc-public-school-students-return-to-class-amid-covid-19-concerns/

87.

Sampson

Bertrand

(2022). “This is civil disobedience. I’ll continue”: The racialization of school board meeting rules. Journal of Education Policy, 37, 226–246.

88.

Sattin-Bajaj

Roda

(2020). Opportunity hoarding in school choice contexts: The role of policy design in promoting middle-class parents’ exclusionary behaviors. Educational Policy, 34(7), 1–44. https://doi.org/10.1177/0895904818802106

89.

Scott

J. T.

(2013a). A Rosa Parks moment? School choice and the marketization of civil rights. Critical Studies in Education, 54(1), 5–18.

90.

Scott

J. T.

(2013b). School choice and the empowerment imperative. Peabody Journal of Education, 88(1), 60–73.

91.

Shah

(2018). Different numbers, different stories: Problematizing “gaps” in Ontario and the TDSB. Canadian Journal of Educational Administration and Policy, 187, 31–47.

92.

Shapiro

(2020a, September 4). N.Y.C. parents are exhausted. But will they send their children to school? The New York Times. https://www.nytimes.com/2020/09/04/nyregion/nyc-schools-reopening.html

93.

Shapiro

(2020b, December 8). 12,000 more white children return to N.Y.C. schools than black children. The New York Times. https://www.nytimes.com/2020/12/08/nyregion/ny-schools-reopening-inequality.html

94.

Shapiro

Rubinstein

Fitzsimmons

(2020, September 1). New York City delays start of school to ready for in-person classes. The New York Times. https://www.nytimes.com/2020/09/01/nyregion/schools-open-coronavirus-nyc.html

95.

Shapiro

Zaveri

(2020, October 1). New York becomes the first big city in the U.S. to reopen all its schools. The New York Times. https://www.nytimes.com/2020/10/01/nyregion/nyc-coronavirus-schools-reopen.html

96.

Singer

Marsh

J. A.

Menefee-Libey

Alonso

Bradley

Tracy

(2022). The politics of School reopening during COVID-19: A multiple case study of five Urban Districts in the 2020-21 School Year. (EdWorkingPaper No. 22-605). Annenberg Institute at Brown University. https://doi.org/10.26300/0bke-pz42

97.

Stone

D. A.

(1997). Policy paradox: The art of political decision making. W.W. Norton.

98.

Stout

R. T.

Tallerico

Scribner

K. P.

(1994). Values: The “what?” of the politics of education. Journal of Education Policy, 9(5), 5–20.

99.

Swope

(2020, December 14). What really worries NYC teachers: Little preparation, guidance or tech support are biggest challenges as more remote instruction looms. New York Daily News. https://www.nydailynews.com/opinion/ny-oped-what-really-worries-nyc-teachers-20200702-xdgyzv3oyzb3bowlcln6d5nqru-story.html

100.

Tavory

Timmermans

(2014). Abductive analysis: Theorizing qualitative research. University of Chicago Press.

101.

Thompson

C. N.

Baumgartner

Pichardo

Toro

Arciuolo

. . . Fine

(2020). COVID-19 outbreak—New York City, February 29–June 1, 2020. Morbidity and Mortality Weekly Report, 69, 1725–1729. http://doi.org/10.15585/mmwr.mm6946a2

102.

Trujillo

Moller

Jensen

Kissell

R. E.

Larsen

(2021). Images of educational leadership: How principals make sense of democracy and social justice in two distinct policy contexts. Educational Administration Quarterly, 57(4), 536–569.

103.

Turner

E. O.

(2015). Districts’ responses to demographic change: Making sense of race, class and immigration in political and organizational context. American Educational Research Journal, 52(1), 4–39.

104.

Turner

E. O.

(2020a). Equity in pandemic schooling: An action guide for families, educators, and communities. Lapham-Marquette Equity in Action Committee. https://tinyurl.com/EquityGuidePandemicSchooling

105.

Turner

E. O.

(2020b). Suddenly diverse: How school districts manage race and inequality. University of Chicago Press.

106.

Turner

E. O.

Beneke

A. J.

(2020). “Softening” school resource officers: The extension of police presence in schools in an era of black lives matter, school shootings, and rising inequality. Race, Ethnicity, and Education, 23(2), 221–240.

107.

Turner

E. O.

Spain

A. K.

(2020). The multiple meanings of (in)equity: Remaking school district tracking policy in an era of budget cuts and accountability. Urban Education, 55(5), 783–812.

108.

Valant

(2020). School reopening plans linked to politics rather than public health. Brown Center Chalkboard, Brookings. https://www.brookings.edu/blog/brown-center-chalkboard/2020/07/29/school-reopening-plans-linked-to-politics-rather-than-public-health/

109.

Vargas

Mora

G. C.

Gleeson

(2021). Race and ideology in a pandemic: White privilege and patterns of risk perception during COVID-19. Social Problems. Advance online publication. https://doi.org/10.1093/socpro/spab037

110.

Veiga

(2020a, July 27). NYC teachers group pushes back on in-person learning plans, threatens another sickout. Chalkbeat New York. https://ny.chalkbeat.org/2020/7/27/21341163/nyc-teachers-threaten-another-sickout

111.

Veiga

(2020b, July 28). Reopening schools will be expensive. NYC pols are demanding a spending plan from the city and state. Chalkbeat New York. https://ny.chalkbeat.org/2020/7/28/21345451/nyc-pols-want-school-reopeining-spending-plan

112.

Veiga

Zimmerman

(2020, September 14). With a week left to reopen, can Mayor de Blasio convince NYC that school buildings are safe? Chalkbeat New York. https://ny.chalkbeat.org/2020/9/14/21437251/bill-de-blasio-nyc-school-reopening

113.

Welner

K. G.

Carter

P. L.

(2013). Achievement gaps arise from opportunity gaps. In Carter

P. L.

Welner

K. G.

(Eds.), Closing the opportunity gap: What America must do to give every child an even chance (pp. 1–10). Oxford University Press.

114.

Willyard

(2021, July 7). COVID and schools: The evidence for reopening safely. Nature, 595, 164–167. https://www.nature.com/articles/d41586-021-01826-x

115.

Zimmerman

(2020, November 30). NYC middle and high schools won’t offer in-person learning until 2021 at the earliest. Chalkbeat New York. https://ny.chalkbeat.org/2020/11/30/21734113/high-school-middle-school-all-remote-2021