Despite decades of research indicating classrooms shape student engagement, learning, and development, there is a dearth of empirically grounded research focusing specifically on observed classroom engagement as a predictor of student outcomes in community colleges. This article describes the development of a qualitatively grounded, quantitative classroom-level engagement measurement protocol designed for this purpose. We provide evidence for the measure’s validity and reliability via confirmatory factor analyses and descriptive analyses that offer a snapshot of the information this measure can generate. Furthermore, we examine a two-level structural equation regression model that uses student survey data from students nested in observed classrooms. We then review our results in light of the relevance this measure has for researchers and educators in community colleges.
AnayaG.ColeD. G. (2001). Latina/o student achievement: Exploring the influence of student-faculty interactions on college grades. Journal of College Student Development, 42(1), 3–14.
3.
AstinA. W. (1993). What matters in college? Four critical years revisited. San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass.
4.
BaileyT.MorestV. S. (Eds.). (2006). Defending the community college equity agenda. Baltimore, MD: Johns Hopkins University Press.
5.
BensimonE. M. (2007). The underestimated significance of practitioner knowledge in the scholarship on student success. The Review of Higher Education, 30, 441–469. doi:10.1353/rhe.2007.0032
6.
BloomD. E. (2004). Globalization and education: An economic perspective. In Suárez-OrozcoM.Qin-HilliardD. (Eds.), Globalization: Culture and education in the new millennium (pp. 56–77). Berkeley: University of California Press.
7.
BlumenfeldP. C. (1992). Classroom learning and motivation: Clarifying and expanding goal theory. Journal of Educational Psychology, 84, 272. doi:10.1037/0022-0663.84.3.272
8.
BonwellC.EisenJ. (1991). Active learning: Creating excitement in the classroom. Washington, DC: Association for the Study of Higher Education-Educational Resources Information Center Higher Education Report.
9.
BookerK. C. (2007). Perceptions of classroom belongingness among African American college students. College Student Journal, 41(1), 178–186.
10.
BraxtonJ. M.BrayN. J.BergerJ. B. (2000). Faculty teaching skills and their influence on the college student departure process. Journal of College Student Development, 41, 215–227.
11.
BraxtonJ. M.MilemJ. F.SullivanA. S. (2000). The influence of active learning on the college student departure process: Toward a revision of Tinto’s theory. Journal of Higher Education, 71, 569–590. doi:10.2307/2649260
12.
BronfenbrennerU.MorrisP. A. (1998). The ecology of developmental processes. In DamonW.LernerR. M. (Ed.), Handbook of Child Psychology: Vol. 1. Theoretical models of human development (5th ed., pp. 993–1028). Hoboken, NJ: John Wiley.
13.
BrykA. S.GomezL. M.GrunowA.LeMahieuP. G. (2015). Learning to improve: How America’s schools can get better at getting better. Cambridge, MA: Harvard Education Press.
14.
BrykA. S.RaudenbushS. W. (1992). Hierarchical linear models for social and behavioral research: Applications and data analysis methods (1st ed.). Newbury Park, CA: SAGE.
15.
CabreraA. F.ColbeckC. L.TerenziniP. T. (2001). Developing performance indicators for assessing classroom teaching practices and student learning. Research in Higher Education, 42, 327–352.
16.
CabreraA. F.CrissmanJ. L.BernalE. M.NoraA.TerenziniP. T.PascarellaE. T. (2002). Collaborative learning: Its impact on college students’ development and diversity. Journal of College Student Development, 43, 20–34.
17.
ChickeringA. W.ReisserL. (1993). Education and identity. San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass.
18.
ConchasG. Q. (2001). Structuring failure and success: Understanding the variability in Latino school engagement. Harvard Educational Review, 71, 475–505.
19.
CornoL.MandinachE. B. (1983). The role of cognitive engagement in classroom learning and motivation. Educational Psychologist, 18, 88–108.
20.
CoxR. D. (2006). Virtual access. In BaileyT.MorestV. S. (Eds.), Defending the community college equity agenda (pp. 110–131). Baltimore, MD: Johns Hopkins University Press.
21.
CoxR. D. (2009). The college fear factor: How students and professors misunderstand one another. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.
22.
CreswellJ. W.Plano ClarkV. L. (2011). Designing and conducting mixed methods research. Thousand Oaks, CA: SAGE.
23.
CrombieG.PykeS. W.SilverthornN.AlisonJ.PiccininS. (2003). Students’ perceptions of their classroom participation and instructor as a function of gender and context. The Journal of Higher Education, 74, 51–76. doi:10.2307/3648264
24.
Deil-AmenR. (2011). Socio-academic integrative moments: Rethinking academic and social integration among two-year college students in career-related programs. The Journal of Higher Education, 82, 54–91.
25.
Deil-AmenR. (2015). The “traditional” college student: A smaller and smaller minority and its implications diversity and for access institutions. In StevensM.KirstM. (Eds.), Remaking college: The changing ecology of higher education (pp. 134–165). Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press.
26.
EcclesJ. S.WangM. (2012). Part I commentary: So what is student engagement anyway? In ChristensonS. L.ReschlyA. L.WylieC. (Eds.), Handbook of research on student engagement (pp. 133–145). New York, NY: Springer.
27.
EndersC. K.TofighiD. (2007). Centering predictor variables in cross-sectional multilevel models: A new look at an old issue. Psychological Methods, 12, 121–138. doi:10.1037/1082-989X.12.2.121
28.
FarringtonC. A.RoderickM.AllensworthE.NagaokaJ.KeyesT. S.JohnsonD. W.BeechumN. O. (2012). Teaching adolescents to become learners: The role of noncognitive factors in shaping school performance—A critical literature review. Chicago, IL: Consortium on Chicago School Research.
29.
FassingerP. A. (1997). Classes are groups: Thinking sociologically about teaching. College Teaching, 45, 22–25. doi:10.1080/87567559709596184
30.
FergusE.NogueraP.MartinM. (2014). Schooling for resilience: Improving the life trajectory of Black and Latino boys. Cambridge, MA: Harvard Education Press.
31.
FinnJ. D.ZimmerK. S. (2012). Student engagement: What is it? Why does it matter? In ChristensonS. L.ReschlyA. L.WylieC. (Eds.), Handbook of research on student engagement (pp. 97–131). New York, NY: Springer.
32.
FredricksJ. A.BlumenfeldP. C.ParisA. H. (2004). School engagement: Potential of the concept, state of the evidence. Review of Educational Research, 74, 59–109. doi:10.3102/00346543074001059
33.
GrantM. R.KeimM. C. (2002). Faculty development in publicly supported two-year colleges. Community College Journal of Research and Practice, 26, 793–807. doi:10.1080/10668920290104886
34.
GrocciaJ. E.BuskistW. (2011). Need for evidence-based teaching. New Directions for Teaching & Learning, 2011(128), 5–11. doi:10.1002/tl.463
35.
GrubbW. N. (1999). Honored but invisible: An inside look at teaching in community colleges. New York, NY: Routledge.
36.
HamreB. K.PiantaR. C. (2005). Can instructional and emotional support in the first-grade classroom make a difference for children at risk of school failure?Child Development, 76, 949–967. doi:10.1111/j.1467-8624.2005.00889.x
37.
HarperS. R.QuayeS. J. (2009). Student engagement in higher education: Theoretical perspectives and practical approaches for diverse populations. New York, NY: Routledge.
38.
HowardJ.ZoellerA.PrattY. (2006). Students’ race and participation in sociology classroom discussion: A preliminary investigation. Journal of Scholarship of Teaching and Learning, 6(1), 14–38.
39.
HunzickerJ.LukowiakT. (2012). Effective teaching and student engagement in the college classroom: Using the Instructional Practices Inventory (IPI) as a tool for peer observation and self-reflection. Journal on Excellence in College Teaching, 23, 99–132.
40.
HurtadoS.CarterD. F. (1997). Effects of college transition and perceptions of the campus racial climate on Latino college students’ sense of belonging. Sociology of Education, 70, 324–345. doi:10.2307/2673270
41.
KahuE. (2013). Framing student engagement in higher education. Studies in Higher Education, 38, 758–773.
42.
KindermannT. A.McCollamT. L.GibsonE.Jr. (1996). Peer networks and students’ classroom engagement during childhood and adolescence. In JuvonenJ.WentzelK. R. (eds.), Social motivation: Understanding children’s school adjustment (pp. 279–312). New York: Cambridge University Press.
43.
KuhG. D. (2007). What student engagement data tell us about college readiness. Peer Review, 9(1), 4.
44.
KuhG. D.CruceT. M.ShoupR.KinzieJ.GonyeaR. M. (2008). Unmasking the effects of student engagement on first-year college grades and persistence. The Journal of Higher Education, 79, 540–563. doi:10.1353/jhe.0.0019
45.
KuhG. D.HuS. (2001). The effects of student-faculty interaction in the 1990s. The Review of Higher Education, 24, 309–332. doi:10.1353/rhe.2001.0005
46.
KuhG. D.KinzieJ.CruceT. M.ShoupR.GonyeaR. M. (2006). Connecting the dots: Multi-faceted analyses of the relationships between student engagement results from the NSSE, and the institutional practices and conditions that foster student success. Bloomington: Indiana University, Center for Postsecondary Research.
47.
La ParoK. M.PiantaR. C.StuhlmanM. (2004). The Classroom Assessment Scoring System: Findings from the prekindergarten year. The Elementary School Journal, 104, 409–426. doi:10.1086/499760
48.
LawsonM. A.LawsonH. A. (2013). New conceptual frameworks for student engagement research, policy, and practice. Review of Educational Research, 83, 432–479. doi:10.3102/0034654313480891
49.
LeeJ. S. (2012). The effects of the teacher–student relationship and academic press on student engagement and academic performance. International Journal of Educational Research, 53, 330–340.
50.
LeeV. E.SmithJ. B. (1999). Social support and achievement for young adolescents in Chicago: The role of school academic press. American Educational Research Journal, 36, 907–945.
51.
LundbergC. A.SchreinerL. A. (2004). Quality and frequency of faculty-student interaction as predictors of learning: An analysis by student race/ethnicity. Journal of College Student Develop-ment, 45, 549–565. doi:10.1353/csd.2004.0061
52.
MarksH. M. (2000). Student engagement in instructional activity: Patterns in the elementary, middle, and high school years. American Educational Research Journal, 37, 153–184. doi:10.3102/00028312037001153
53.
MartinA. M.HandB. (2009). Factors affecting the implementation of argument in the elementary science classroom. A longitudinal case study. Research in Science Education, 39, 17–38. doi:10.1007/s11165-007-9072-7
54.
MayhewM. J. S.TriciaA. P.ErnestT. N. L.ThomasF. B.CharlesF. (2012). Going deep into mechanisms for moral reasoning growth: How deep learning approaches affect moral reasoning development for first-year students. Research in Higher Education, 53, 26–46. doi:10.1007/s11162-011-9226-3
MilesM. B.HubermanM. A. (1994). Qualitative data analysis: An expanded sourcebook (2nd ed.). Thousand Oaks, CA: SAGE.
57.
MuthénL. K.MuthénB. O. (1998–2012). Mplus user’s guide (7th ed.). Los Angeles, CA: Author.
58.
National Research Council. (2004). Engaging schools: Fostering high school students’ motivation to learn. Washington, DC: National Academies Press.
59.
National Survey of Student Engagement. (2006). Engaged learning: Fostering success for all students. Bloomington: Indiana University Center for Postsecondary Research.
60.
Nelson LairdT. F.ChenD.KuhG. D. (2008). Classroom practices at institutions with higher-than-expected persistence rates: What student engagement data tell us. New Directions for Teaching & Learning, 2008(115), 85–99. doi:10.1002/tl.327
61.
PascarellaE. T.SalisburyM. H.BlaichC. (2011). Exposure to effective instruction and college student persistence: A multi-institutional replication and extension. Journal of College Student Development, 52, 4–19. doi:10.1353/csd.2011.0005
62.
PascarellaE. T.SeifertT. A.WhittE. J. (2008). Effective instruction and college student persistence: Some new evidence. New Directions for Teaching & Learning, 2008(115), 55–70. doi:10.1002/tl.325
63.
PascarellaE. T.TerenziniP. T. (2005). How college affects students: A third decade of research (Vol. 2). San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass.
64.
PeñaE. V.BensimonE. M.ColyarJ. E. (2006). Contextual problem defining: Learning to think and act from the standpoint of equity. Liberal Education, 92, 48–55.
65.
PiantaR. C.AllenJ. P. (2008). Building capacity for positive youth development in secondary school classrooms: Changing teacher interactions with students. In ShinnM.YoshikawaH. (Eds.), Toward positive youth development: Transforming schools and community programs (pp. 21–39). Oxford, UK: Oxford University Press.
66.
PiantaR. C.BelskyJ.VandergriftN.HoutsR.MorrisonF. J. (2008). Classroom effects on children’s achievement trajectories in elementary school. American Educational Research Journal, 45, 365–397. doi:10.3102/0002831207308230
67.
PiantaR. C.HamreB. K. (2009). Conceptualization, measurement, and improvement of classroom processes: Standardized observation can leverage capacity. Educational Researcher, 38, 109–119. doi:10.3102/0013189x09332374
68.
PiantaR. C.La ParoK. M.HamreB. K. (2008). Classroom Assessment Scoring System. Baltimore, MD: Paul H. Brookes.
69.
PintrichP. R.SchraubenB. (1992). Students’ motivational beliefs and their cognitive engagement in classroom academic tasks. In SchunkD. H.MeeceJ. L. (Eds.), Student perceptions in the classroom (pp. 149–183). Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum.
70.
RamsdenP. (2003). Learning to teach in higher education. London, England: Routledge.
71.
ReeveJ. (2012). A self-determination theory perspective on student engagement. In ChristensonS. L.ReschlyA. L.WylieC. (Eds.), Handbook of research on student engagement (pp. 149–172). New York, NY: Springer.
72.
RobbinsS. B.LauverK.LeH.DavisD.LangleyR.CarlstromA. (2004). Do psychosocial and study skill factors predict college outcomes? A meta-analysis. Psychological Bulletin, 130, 261–288. doi:10.1037/0033-2909.130.2.261
73.
SaenzV. B.HatchD.BukoskiB. E.KimS.LeeK. H.ValdezP. (2011). Community College Student Engagement patterns: A typology revealed through exploratory cluster analysis. Community College Review, 39, 235–267.
74.
SarasonS. B.KlaberM. (1985). The school as a social situation. Annual Review of Psychology, 36, 115–140. doi:10.1146/annurev.psych.36.1.115
75.
SaxL. J.BryantA. N.HarperC. E. (2005). The differential effects of student-faculty interaction on college outcomes for women and men. Journal of College Student Development, 46, 642–657. doi:10.1353/csd.2005.0067
76.
SebringP. B.AllensworthE.BrykA. S.EastonJ. Q.LuppescuS. (2006). The essential supports for school improvement (Research report). Chicago, IL: Consortium on Chicago School Research.
77.
ShamahD.OhlsenS. (2013). Student success plan: Constructing an evidence-based student support system that promotes college completion. Portland, OR: Gateway to College National Network.
78.
SkinnerE. A.FurrerC.MarchandG.KindermannT. (2008). Engagement and disaffection in the classroom: Part of a larger motivational dynamic?Journal of Educational Psychology, 100, 765–781. doi:10.1037/a0012840
79.
SkinnerE. A.PitzerJ. R. (2012). Developmental dynamics of student engagement, coping, and everyday resilience. In ChristensonS. L.ReschlyA. L.WylieC. (Eds.), Handbook of research on student engagement (pp. 21–44). New York, NY: Springer.
80.
StevensM. L. (2015). The changing ecology of U.S. higher education. In StevensM.KirstM. (Eds.), Remaking college: The changing ecology of higher education (pp. 1–18). Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press.
81.
StraussA.CorbinJ. (1990). Basics of qualitative research: Grounded theory procedures and techniques. London, England: SAGE.
82.
Suárez-OrozcoC.CasanovaS.MartinM.KatsiaficasD.CuellarV.SmithN. A.DiasS. I. (2015). Toxic rain in class: Classroom interpersonal microaggressions. Educational Researcher, 44, 151–160. doi:10.3102/0013189X15580314
83.
Suárez-OrozcoC.PimentelA.MartinM. (2009). The significance of relationships: Academic engagement and achievement among newcomer immigrant youth. Teachers College Record, 111, 712–749.
84.
SuperC. M.HarknessS. (1999). The environment as culture in developmental research. In FriedmanS. L.WachsT. D. (Ed.), Measuring environment across the life span: Emerging methods and concepts (pp. 279–323). Washington, DC: American Psychological Association.
85.
SvanumS.BigattiS. M. (2009). Academic course engagement during one semester forecasts college success: Engaged students are more likely to earn a degree, do it faster, and do it better. Journal of College Student Development, 50, 120–132. doi:10.1353/csd.0.0055
86.
TaggJ. (2003). The learning paradigm college. Boston, MA: Anker.
87.
TeranishiR. T.Suárez-OrozcoC.Suárez-OrozcoM. (2011). Immigrants in community colleges. Future of Children, 21, 153–169.
88.
TintoV. (1993). Leaving college: Rethinking the causes and cures of student attrition (2nd ed.). Chicago, IL: University of Chicago Press.
89.
TintoV. (1997). Classrooms as communities: Exploring the educational character of student persistence. The Journal of Higher Education, 68, 599–623. doi:10.2307/2959965
90.
TsengV.SeidmanE. (2007). A systems framework for understanding social settings. American Journal of Community Psychology, 39, 217–228.
91.
TwomblyS.TownsendB. K. (2008). Community college faculty what we know and need to know. Community College Review, 36, 5–24. doi:10.1177/0091552108319538
92.
UmbachP. D.WawrzynskiM. R. (2005). Faculty do matter: The role of college faculty in student learning and engagement. Research in Higher Education, 46(2), 153–184.
93.
ValentineJ. C.HirschyA. S.BremerC.NovilloW.CastallanoM.BanisterA. (2009). Systematic reviews of research: Postsecondary transitions—Identifying effective models and practices. Louisville, KY: National Research Center for Career and Technical Education, University of Louisville.
94.
VoelklK. E. (2012). School identification. In ChristensonS. L.ReschlyA. L.WylieC. (Eds.), Handbook of research on student engagement (pp. 193–218). New York, NY: Springer.
95.
VygotskyL. (1978). Interaction between learning and development. In GauvainM.ColeM. (Eds.), Readings on the development of children (4th ed., pp. 34–41). New York, NY: Worth Publishers.
96.
WeaverR. R.QiJ. (2005). Classroom organization and participation: College students’ perceptions. The Journal of Higher Education, 76, 570–601. doi:10.1353/jhe.2005.0038
97.
WentzelK. (2012). Part III commentary: Socio-cultural contexts, social competence, and engagement at school. In ChristensonS. L.ReschlyA. L.WylieC. (Eds.), Handbook of research on student engagement (pp. 479–489). New York, NY: Springer.
98.
Wolf-WendelL.WardK.KinzieJ. (2009). A tangled web of terms: The overlap and unique contribution of involvement, engagement, and integration to understanding college student success. Journal of College Student Development, 50, 407–428. doi:10.1353/csd.0.0077
Supplementary Material
Please find the following supplemental material available below.
For Open Access articles published under a Creative Commons License, all supplemental material carries the same license as the article it is associated with.
For non-Open Access articles published, all supplemental material carries a non-exclusive license, and permission requests for re-use of supplemental material or any part of supplemental material shall be sent directly to the copyright owner as specified in the copyright notice associated with the article.
