Exposure to Adversity and Trauma Among Students Who Experience School Discipline: A Scoping Review

Abstract

While the disproportional application of school discipline has garnered notable attention, the relationship between trauma or adversity and school discipline is under examined. The purpose of the current scoping review was to map the state of the literature, empirical and theoretical, at the intersection of school discipline, and trauma or adversity. The findings identified a gap in our knowledge as only 14 of the 49 included articles detailed empirical studies focused on the relationship between adversity and school discipline, with very few from outside of the United States. However, this burgeoning body of knowledge points to a significant relationship between trauma/adversity and experiencing school discipline that warrants further study and contextualizes expanded adversities, including poverty and racism as adversity. We believe this is necessary to acknowledging the hidden and unaddressed trauma among students being disproportionally disciplined, leading to a greater understanding of student lives, and evidence-based, trauma-informed, and culturally attuned discipline.

Trauma and adversity are known to have a significant negative impact on student outcomes generally (Fry et al., 2018), yet there is very little focus on the relationship between trauma or childhood adversities and school discipline, such as suspension, expulsion, detention, and office referral. For example, the extant literature on exclusionary school discipline has predominately focused on identifying its disproportionate application, concerned primarily with student characteristics and family social location factors (race, culture, socioeconomic status [SES], neighborhood, community) and school-level factors (percentage of Black students within a school, average school achievement, principal’s perspectives, classroom management skills, staff-student racial match, teacher perceptions and expectations) (Alexander et al., 2007; Finn & Servoss, 2015; Losen, 2015; Mackey et al., 2015; Theriot et al., 2010; Welsh & Little, 2018b). Given the bio-psycho-social and developmental impact of childhood adversities and trauma, this scoping review of the literature sought to explore what is known about the contribution, role or prevalence of trauma and early childhood adversity (ACE) for students who are disciplined at school and the ways that adversity or trauma are theorized, contextualized, or understood, related to school discipline. Scoping review methodology was considered most appropriate for the research questions as scoping reviews are used to identify gaps in existing literature and draw conclusions regarding the overall state of research in an area (Arksey & O’Malley, 2005).

Trauma and Adversity

Trauma refers to the sequela, symptomology, or impact of a distressing or disturbing experience, such as a car accident or a natural disaster, being harmed by someone, witnessing someone else being harmed, or exposure to violence (Santiago et al., 2013). Trauma is therefore considered a reaction or a response rather than an event. Adverse experiences are those that can lead to trauma, generally understood as situations that are harmful or threatening, or involve the absence of stimulation needed for typical development early in life (Koss & Gunnar, 2018). Specific ACEs have been identified as affecting long-term health and are conventionally defined as psychological, physical, or sexual abuse; physical or emotional neglect; death of a parent; violence against mother; parental separation or divorce; or living with caregivers who misuse substances, experience mental illness or suicidal behavior, or were ever imprisoned. Early ACEs studies, however, involved predominantly White, middle- to upper-middle-class samples and focused on exposures within the home (Cronholm et al., 2015). More recent research has supported the expansion of the conventional understanding of ACEs to include peer victimization, isolation, and rejection; a close network member being seriously ill or attempting suicide; exposure to community violence; low SES; experiencing racism; living in an unsafe neighborhood; and having lived in foster care (Cronholm et al., 2015; Finkelhor et al., 2015; Turner et al., 2020). This scoping review included both conventional ACEs and the recommended expanded ACEs. While the terms trauma and adversity or ACEs are understood distinctly, they converge in that adversity can lead to trauma. However, experiences of adversity can have an impact regardless of whether the response is recognized or categorized as trauma.

Systemic inequity, community violence, poverty, and systemic racism are consistently identified as drivers of disproportion within the discipline. These have not, however, been contextualized as adversity within the literature on school discipline, or consistently in the broader ACEs research (Alloway et al., 2013; Christie et al., 2004; Cronholm et al., 2015; Gregory et al., 2010; Hemphill et al., 2010; Skiba et al., 2015; Vanderhaar et al., 2015). Narrow definitions of adversity render many important forms of adversity experienced by children and youth unrecognizable, notably experiences of racism, poverty and non-life-threatening school and community violence (Alvarez et al., 2016; Voisin, 2019). It is essential for healthy relationships and connections within schools that educators recognize and understand the lives of students, including experiences of adversity or trauma, which in turn fosters school success and plays a key role in schools that have low rates of suspension (Anyon et al., 2018; Ekstrand, 2015). If educators are not attuned to experiences of adversity among students, they are more likely to discipline them in ways that exacerbate harm.

Without a solid empirical understanding of adversity or trauma and school discipline, educators do not have the knowledge necessary to make evidence informed practice and policy decisions, such as how to apply trauma-informed approaches within a disciplinary situation. Additionally, theoretically informed research that examines causal mechanisms of disproportion within discipline is essential to design better and equitable interventions (Valdebenito et al., 2019). It is important, therefore, to understand the basis of our knowledge related to school discipline and where there may be gaps in this understanding.

Disproportion Within School Discipline and Exposure to Adversity

The disproportionately high application of discipline on students who are Black or Indigenous, male, have special education needs, or come from low-SES backgrounds has been well documented (Finn & Servoss, 2015; Shollenberger, 2015; Skiba et al., 2002). This disproportion in school discipline both reflects and contributes to racial and other opportunity gaps, driving disparate academic outcomes and feeding what has been termed the school-to-prison pipeline (Cage et al., 2018; Cuellar & Markowitz, 2015; Hemez et al., 2019; James & Turner, 2017; Losen, 2015; Novak, 2018, 2019; Raufu, 2017; Skiba et al., 2014; Welsh & Little, 2018b). The literature, however, has been critiqued for being too narrowly focused; lacking a critical incorporation of history; and undertheorizing, particularly theory that understands the impact of the larger economic and social structures that impact students and schools (McGrew, 2016; Welsh & Little, 2018a). This scoping review is guided by a critical and ecological systemic understanding of the sociohistorical, systemic, and interpersonal factors believed to be at the root of disproportion not only within school discipline but in disproportionate exposure to adversity (Bronfenbrenner, 1977; Collins, 2019; Crenshaw, 1989). These factors put the same populations of students who are disproportionately disciplined at greater risk of exposure to violence, trauma and adversity (Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, 2014; Cronholm et al., 2015; Maguire-Jack & Font, 2017; Slopen et al., 2016; UNICEF, 2017). The relationship between childhood adversities and school discipline outcomes, however, is rarely examined (Crosby, 2016; Mallett, 2017). Therefore, this scoping review applies a critical and systemic approach to our trauma and adversity framework, specifically interested in works that explicitly conceptualize the intersection of trauma or adversity and school discipline, and intentionally addressing the gap that is present in the literature that scoping reviews are particularly geared towards to identifying.

This scoping review aimed to identify and map our current understanding of the relationship of adversity and trauma to school discipline. This mapping entailed identification of gaps in the literature related to adversity and discipline broadly and understanding the nature and diversity of the knowledge related to trauma and adversity within school discipline.

The Current Study

The current scoping review examined literature related to educational settings from kindergarten to the end of secondary school, excluding postsecondary education. School discipline included all forms of suspension (removed from school or classes for a specific time period) and expulsion (removed indefinitely); in-school or in-office suspensions; as well as being referred to the school principal, vice principal or administrative office for disciplinary reasons (office disciplinary referrals) and detention (required to stay beyond class time such as after school or during lunch). At the time of this review, there were no known reviews of the literature that focused on the intersection of trauma or adversity and school discipline.

Objectives

The purpose of the current scoping review was to map the state of literature on school discipline related to factors consistent with trauma and adversity. This purpose is aligned with Arksey and O’Malley’s (2005) stated goal “to identify research gaps in the existing literature . . . drawing conclusions from existing literature regarding the overall state of research activity . . . [and] identify gaps in the evidence base where no research has been conducted” (p. 21). Moreover, with a scoping review, the research questions are typically broader, and the review may include multiple forms of evidence, particularly useful in emergent areas of research (Peters et al., 2021; Tricco et al., 2016). This study sought to identify and describe what is known about exposure to trauma or adversity related to school discipline, identify any gaps in our understanding of the role of trauma and adversity within school discipline (including geography, theoretical understanding, and potential role in disproportionate discipline), and understand how trauma/adversity has been contextualized or theorized within school discipline.

To meet these study aims the following research questions were explored: (a) What is known about the contribution, role or prevalence of trauma and adversity for students who are disciplined at school? (b) How is adversity or trauma theorized, contextualized, or understood, related to school discipline?

Methods

This scoping review followed the five-step methodology identified by Arksey and O’Malley (2005), which includes identifying the research question(s); identifying relevant studies; selecting studies; charting the data; and collating, summarizing, and reporting the results, as well as the scoping review recommendations made by the Joanna Briggs Institute (JBI) (Peters et al., 2020). The objectives, inclusion criteria, and methods for this scoping review were specified in advance and documented in a study protocol that has been registered with Figshare (Sanders et al., 2021).

Inclusion/Exclusion Criteria

We included empirical studies including experimental and quasi-experimental study designs, qualitative studies, descriptive observational study designs, and systematic reviews that met the inclusion criteria depending on the research question. Theoretical conceptual and opinion papers were included to understand the ways that adversity in school discipline is being contextualized and theorized. This scoping review included research related to students, parents, staff, and any other data that considers adversity or trauma within school discipline. We included expanded forms of childhood adversity, potentially traumatic experiences, or the identification of symptoms, and characteristics or expressions of trauma among students who have been disciplined in school. Research that discusses adversity or trauma in education, in the home, or community but not specific to discipline were excluded. Studies published in English were included with no beginning date identified. Conference abstracts; undergraduate, masters, and doctorate theses; newspaper articles; website and blogs; and articles not translated to English were excluded.

Search Strategy

The search strategy was aimed at locating published articles that included school discipline and adversity or trauma. After extensive consultation with the research team, the team research librarian developed the search strategy. The first stage of the three stage search strategy was an initial limited search in Social Work Abstracts and Social Services Abstracts conducted in January 2021. This initial search was undertaken to identify articles on the topic, the major concepts used, words contained in the titles and abstracts of relevant articles, search terms, and the index terms used to describe the articles (see Table 1). This initial search was then used to develop a full search strategy for Criminal Justice Abstracts, ERIC, PsychInfo (Proquest), Scopus, Social Service Abstracts, Social Work Abstracts, and Sociological Abstracts. These databases were chosen as they support the interdisciplinary aims of the scoping review, covering topics including education, criminology, psychology, social work, and other social sciences. The search strategy, including all identified keywords and index terms, was adapted for each included database and/or information source. No limits were placed on date, language, or full text filter in these database searches. The reference lists of included articles were searched for additional relevant studies as the third step to this three-step process.

Table 1

Search strategy

Searched on January 25, 2021. No filter for date or language. Filter for source type: Scholarly Journals.
Search #	Search terms	Records retrieved
S1 Concept: Education	school OR education OR “primary school” OR “elementary school” OR “middle school” OR “high school” OR “secondary school”	208,449
S2 Concept: Discipline	discipline OR “school discipline” OR “discipline referral” OR “office disciplinary referral” OR “disproportionate discipline” OR disproportionality OR detention OR suspension OR suspend OR suspended OR “out of school suspension” OR “on campus suspension” OR “in school suspension” OR “long term suspension” OR expulsion OR expelled OR expel OR exclusion OR exclude OR excluded OR “disciplinary school exclusion” OR “temporary exclusion” OR “internal exclusion” OR “external exclusion” OR “exclusionary discipline” OR “corporal punishment” OR “zero tolerance” OR “restorative justice” OR “alternative approach” OR “alternative approaches” OR intervention OR interventions	110,328
S3 Concept: Trauma	trauma OR adversity OR “Post Traumatic Stress Disorder” OR “adverse childhood experiences”	9930
S4	S1 AND S2 AND S3	403

Source of Evidence Screening and Selection

Following the search, all articles were exported in RIS format from the databases and imported into Covidence, a screening and extraction tool, where duplicates were removed. Two authors (JS and EI) pilot tested and refined the data extraction tool with 10 of the selected articles (see Appendix I). Titles and abstracts were screened by two independent reviewers for assessment against the inclusion criteria. Articles were removed that were not relevant to the current review—as an example, our initial search retrieved research related to chemical suspensions or expulsion, trauma outside of a school context such as with veterans, and purely medical trauma such as cardiac arrest. Potentially relevant sources were retrieved in full and inputted into Covidence for data extraction. The full text of selected citations was assessed in detail against the inclusion criteria by two independent reviewers. Other than duplications, no articles were excluded at full text review. Any disagreements that arose between the reviewers at each stage of the selection process was resolved through discussion. The data were charted and sorted by themes guided by a critical approach in line with reflexive thematic analysis (TA) (Braun & Clarke, 2021). TA was used as a flexible approach for organizing and conceptualizing patterns or themes noted within the papers. We applied the six stages of reflexive TA throughout the various stages of the scoping review. For example, throughout the title and abstract and full text review stages of the scoping review, we were engaged in familiarizing ourselves with the data. Coding took place in conjunction with data extraction and consolidation, and initial themes were identified while charting the data (see Table 2). These themes were further developed, then refined and finally written up in this article. This approach guided the identification of themes found across the literature that were directly related to the research questions. We identified empirical studies that explicitly explored adversity and school discipline to answer our first research question. Further, TA was conducted on the forms of adversity most often included in the data, as well as an exploration of prominent themes; these included failing to understand and address students with trauma histories, papers that promoted the application of trauma-informed care within school discipline, discussions of intervention programs or classrooms to address school discipline, and the school to prison pipeline.

Table 2

Summary table of included sources of evidence

Lead author (year); type of manuscript	Aim or objective	Population	Concept of paper/primary idea	Findings specific to discipline and adversity	Forms of adversity included	Adversity and discipline focus?
Alloway et al. (2013); quantitative	To explore the role of potential contributors to antisocial behaviors—behavior, cognitive, and environmental influences—on expulsion	Youth who engaged in antisocial behavior and at high risk for criminal activities	Authors found a strong relationship between expulsion and adolescent's self-rating of delinquent behaviors, which were closely related to social workers ratings	The focus was on behaviors as a predictor for expulsion; however, SES, family structure, or living in poorer neighborhoods did not influence being expelled	SES, family structure, single parent home vs two-parent home, “poorer neighborhood” determined by zip codes	Y
Ashworth et al. (2008); theoretical, descriptive, perspective, opinion	To describe a restorative justice practice program instituted in one school	College student mentors of elementary students involved in the program	A description of a restorative justice center as an alternative to “do nothing” detention	Not a focus in the paper. Trauma was briefly mentioned as a factor to be considered noting that detention can retraumatize	Fear, isolation, emotional abuse, receiving free or reduced lunch	N
Bailey et al. (2019); review article – narrative review	To summarize research on self-regulation, trauma, and developmental relationships, highlighting potential consequences of and alternatives to “no excuses” policies and practices	N/A	A review of the literature on “no excuses” model of education emerging in the United States following the No Child Left Behind Act and education reform	Not a focus in the paper. There was general acknowledgement of trauma, violence, poverty, and discipline being retraumatizing	Trauma, violence, poverty	N
Baroni et al. (2020); secondary data analysis	To address the absence of evidence- based, trauma-informed models of alternatives to exclusionary discipline by assessing the Monarch Room	Female, court-involved students enrolled in the public charter school, with a history of abuse and neglect, and subsequently in residential treatment	The findings support the use of the Monarch Room in supporting court-involved youth. When teachers are given alternatives to suspension to address school discipline issues, they will use them	Not a focus of the study; however, trauma-informed alternatives to exclusionary discipline was stressed. Authors note many teachers do not understand youths’ experiences and how traumatic experiences may manifest	Abuse and neglect, residential treatment care	N
Basford et al. (2020); qualitative	To examine how the High School for the Recording Arts (HSRA) a charter school focused on dropout recovery, is interrupting the school-to-prison pipeline	School staff and students of HSRA	The authors found benefits of a charter high school focused on dropout recovery, specifically attending to youth at risk for the school-to-prison pipeline	Not a focus in the paper. Focus was on trauma-informed approaches for school success, specifically on dropout and risk for criminal justice system involvement	ACEs defined as physical or emotional abuse, domestic violence, drug or alcohol addiction in the home, or household member in prison	N
Baumle (2018); theoretical, descriptive, perspective, opinion	To build on the sexual-abuse-to-prison pipeline to develop the trauma-to-prison pipeline, the juvenile justice system’s criminalization of girls who experiences multiple and intersecting forms of trauma	N/A	A theoretical paper discussing the criminalization of low income and girls of color and the influence of trauma on the disproportionate number of low income and females of color in the trauma to prison pipeline	This paper conceptually connects trauma and adversity with the “trauma to prison pipeline.” Unaddressed trauma is seen as playing “a causal role in the criminalization of girls.” Discipline is seen as a direct pathway to criminal justice	Sexual assault/abuse, interpersonal and gender based violence, disproportionate forms of violence and physical assault, low income communities	Y
Beland & Kim (2016); secondary data analysis	To examine how fatal shootings in high school affect schools and students	Ninth- to 11th-grade students who attended a school with a fatal shooting	The authors found that homicidal shootings significantly decrease the enrollment of students in Grade 9 and of test results	The authors did not find statistically significant impacts on behavior, graduation, attendance, or suspension rates	School shooting in the form of homicide or suicide	Y
Bennett (2007); theoretical, descriptive, perspective, opinion	To relate the struggles of the author’s staff creating a healing school out of a program identified as lacking an effective approach to discipline or suitable curriculum	Staff and students attending First Place	A description of developing a school that centers healing for children who are or were homeless called “First Place,” a nonprofit agency assisting families with housing, employment, health/mental health, and life skills	Not a focus in the paper. Author noted suspensions was used instead of helping students cope with their feelings, increasing student’s distrust	Developmental trauma, underhoused families	N
Bornstein (2018); qualitative	To provide a salient example of how the transformative leadership framework can explore Whites committed to antiracist leadership	Autoethnographic case study of the author’s time as a principal of an urban elementary school beginning a sweeping turnaround plan	A description of the implementation of a school turnaround plan to include the addition of restorative practices and trauma-informed discipline	Author described that students were often excluded from class, through discipline for behaviors rooted in trauma. Trauma was used to pathologize students and maintain White supremacy. Transformative trauma-informed approaches should be used	Domestic violence, community crime, exposure to war are mentioned	Y
Cassidy & Stevenson (2005); quantitative	To understand how hidden, vulnerable qualities may relate to aggressive behaviors among African American males attending school in an urban remedial disciplinary setting	African American males aged 10 to 18 who were members of a within-school, antiaggression intervention program	The authors suggest that engagement in aggression among African American males in an urban context may be a reactive coping strategy to hypervulnerability, such as depression, rejection sensitivity, and fear, part of their high-stress environments	Not a focus in the paper. There was no explicit discussion of school discipline and experiences of adversity or trauma	Indirectly measures exposure to community violence	N
Coleman (2015); qualitative	To explore the lived experiences of students who had experienced expulsion from school	Students aged 13–19 attending an alternative education program for expelled students	The author suggests that the experiences of students can help inform policies and practices that build resilience in students who get expelled	Not a focus in the paper. Being expelled was defined as a type of trauma or adversity that ultimately built resilience	Expulsion was defined as the form of trauma	N
Crosby et al. (2018); mixed methods	To examine a group of court-involved, female, and primarily African American students in relation to their use of and experiences with the Monarch Room	Students who were Monarch Room users	There was a statistically significant increase in student use of the Monarch Room and students reported positive perceptions of the intervention	The Monarch Room intervention, based on the Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services Administration’s (SAMHSA) trauma-informed care model, was found to be an improved approach over zero tolerance	Abuse, neglect, removal from family home	Y
Day et al. (2017); qualitative	To address the gap in understanding how schools in residential treatment facilities meet the educational needs of court-involved youth	Females aged 13–19 enrolled in a residential treatment program	The authors suggest that students in residential treatment facilities were commonly exposed to adverse events and exhibit symptoms of posttraumatic stress. Schools in these facilities should foster a culture of trauma sensitivity	Not a focus in the paper. Trauma within school discipline was briefly discussed but the focus was on trauma-informed schools generally	Not explicitly discussed, however abuse and neglect are mentioned	N
Delale-O’Connor et al. (2017); theoretical, descriptive, perspective, opinion	To discuss how teacher’s beliefs shape their classroom management and ability to develop meaningful relationships with students and respond to their traumatic experiences	N/A	The authors suggest that teachers who develop higher levels of self-efficacy in classroom management through contextual learning and increased understanding of student experiences and environments can develop skills to enhance learning, avoid harsh discipline, and disrupt the cradle to prison pipeline	Authors asserted that pathologizing trauma leads to ineffective disciplinary choices, like exclusion. Appropriate responses should “seek to develop and strengthen social support” for students	Exposure to violence, other experiences that can lead to trauma, structural challenges (underemployment, underresourced schools, and harsh living conditions) as precursors to trauma risk	Y
Dorado et al. (2016); quantitative	A Program evaluation of Healthy Environments and Response to Trauma in Schools (HEARTS)	School personnel and K–8 students at the four HEARTS schools	The authors assert that a whole-school, multitiered approach providing support at the student, school personnel and system levels can mitigate the effects of trauma and chronic stress	Not a focus in the paper. Trauma and discipline are mentioned however the focus is on the impact of trauma-informed schools generally	Community violence (disproportionality, implicit and explicit bias, inequity are identified)	N
Dutil (2020); theoretical, descriptive, perspective, opinion	To provide a comprehensive argument for the necessity of both a critical race theory (CRT) framework and trauma-informed approach to minimize harm caused by the school-to-prison pipeline	N/A	The author asserts that in order to disrupt the school to prison pipeline and decrease disparities in exclusionary discipline, schools should adopt a trauma-informed approach in conjunction with a CRT framework	Zero tolerance was seen as a tool for control that maintains White supremacy. Exclusionary discipline under zero tolerance often punishes students who are exhibiting symptoms of trauma and can be retraumatizing. Symptoms are often read as defiance and disrespect	Original ACEs studies were introduced without specifying the forms, experiences of racism and race-based stressors	Y
Fitzgerald et al. (2019); qualitative	To learn more about the experience that African American men and their families participating in a general education development (GED) program, living in a low-income, urban environment, have with navigating high-crime neighborhoods and low-performing schools	Young, low-income African American men aged 18–25, who dropped out of high school or were expelled from a job readiness program	The study provided insight into the experiences of the participants to understand the barriers they faced at the intersection of school and home as well as the coping strategies they used to stay safe and be successful	Not a focus in the paper. The authors however, assert that schools with chaotic disciplinary environments that depend on suspension, expulsion and surveillance exacerbate student stress and anxiety related to exposure to trauma	Neighborhood safety, violence, exposure to violence, experiences of racism	N
Gibbs Van Brunschot & Brannigan (2002); qualitative	To investigate the role of childhood maltreatment as a predictor of “prostitution,” as well as in the context of a number of other sequelae to childhood trauma and maltreatment	Females aged 14–45 and engaging in “prostitution,” and comparison group aged 18–29	The authors found that children and women engaging in “prostitution” are more likely to have had a negative home life, early sexual experiences, physical abuse, attempted suicide, run away and expelled from school	While not a focus in the paper, when compared, the target group (those engaging in “prostitution”) were significantly more likely to have been expelled and to have experienced significant adversities	Neglect and abuse, non-traditional family structure, parental substance misuse, physical abuse, excessive physical discipline, sexual abuse/sexual interference	N
Gill et al. (2016); qualitative	To describe Seattle’s School Emphasis Officer (SEO) program	SEOs officers and administrators, and school administrators	The authors suggest that SEO aligns with trauma-informed principles and are delivered in a context of trust building, transparency, and responsivity although they also identify areas for improvement	Not a focus in the paper. Trauma generally mentioned with no discussion of discipline and adversity	Trauma, no definition provided	N
Goebert et al. (2004); quantitative	To examine the influence of family adversity indicators on school-related behavioral problems among Hawaiian and non-Hawaiian adolescents	Students representing five high schools located on three of the Hawaiian Islands	The authors found higher increases in the odds ratios for school-related behavioral problems among non-Hawaiians. No cumulative effect of family adversity among Hawaiian adolescents	Family adversity indicators were not strong predictors of school adjustment difficulties. Family criminality increased the odds of suspensions	Family adversity indicators: low SES, family discord (death of a family member, divorce or separation, family member leaving home, fostered), family criminality (arrested, in frequent fights, or substance misuse) and poor family health (hospitalization, victim of violence, or attempted suicide)	Y
González et al. (2019); theoretical, descriptive, perspective, opinion	To lay the groundwork for a movement that recognizes exclusionary school discipline as a health justice issue	N/A	The authors assert that exclusionary discipline practices should be linked to/viewed as a public health issue	Not a focus in the paper	ACEs and trauma are referenced generally	N
Henderson et al. (2019); theoretical, descriptive, perspective, opinion	To offer a framework for understanding racism	N/A	The authors created a framework focusing on race-related trauma in the public education system	The authors discuss mitigating race-related trauma by building a school culture that values the cultural realities of racially diverse youth, entails transparent practices, and integrates families and community members. School suspension and expulsion are seen as alienating Black youth from school resources leading to further gaps in learning	Acts of violence and discrimination, racism, race-related trauma	Y
Hoover (2019); theoretical, descriptive, perspective, opinion	To provide a policy review for practice, highlighting the positive impact of trauma responsive schools	N/A	This is a framework paper that illustrates the interplay between macro- and micro-level forces and how alienation, discrimination, and violence are detrimental to the health of Black youth in the public education system	Not a focus in the paper. Mentions that trauma-responsive schools can reduce suspensions, however, does not explicitly link discipline and adversity	ACEs are referenced	N
Howard (2016); review article, narrative review	To emphasize the importance of schools learning and encompassing neuroscience into their behavior management policies and practices	N/A	The author uses neuroscience related to complex trauma to explain why children do not always respond well to school-wide behaviorist systems or exclusion. School disciplinary systems should be trauma-informed attending to the needs of trauma survivors	Not a focus in the paper. The authors assert that current school practices that are based in behavior management approaches and rely on school exclusion fail to address the behaviors and needs of these children	Complex trauma: exposure to multiple “traumatic events” over an extended duration (particularly in the early years of life)	N
Hyman et al. (1988); review article, narrative review	To present evidence that the pattern of symptoms of post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) in children is different from those in adults and how this relates to excessive discipline in school	N/A	The authors propose that trusted caregivers in schools may be sources of PTSD in children	The authors stress that overly severe school discipline used with students with PTSD can cause long term stress	Abuse, family violence, poverty, excessively harsh school discipline in the form of physical and verbal assaults, divorce, witnessing violence	Y
Joseph et al. (2020); theoretical, descriptive, perspective, opinion	To identify potential protective factors and points of intervention that could lead to improved educational outcomes for cross-systems youth, within the systems of child welfare, education, and housing services based on the youth’s experiences	N/A	The authors use CRT, trauma-informed practice literature, and restorative practice philosophies, to present a framework that highlights how schools can incorporate racial equity into mental health practices and discipline decision making	The authors argue for a trauma-informed, CRT approach towards discipline. Schools that are unprepared to provide culturally responsive and trauma-informed practices may contribute to the disproportional suspension of marginalized youth	ACEs generally	Y
Kernic et al. (2002); quantitative	To determine if children exposed to intimate partner violence (IPV), either with or without a history of child abuse, were more likely to exhibit academic problems and to seek school health services than their school peers	Women in Seattle-area aged 18 and over, and police involved for IPV. Children whose mothers experienced IPV and participated in the Women’s Wellness Study. Comparison group	The authors found that children exposed to IPV only, and those exposed to IPV and child abuse, were approximately twice as likely to have been suspended, and more likely to have been suspended for aggressive behavior. Absenteeism, lower grade point average (GPA), sent home by school nurse. and referral to a speech pathologist were also more likely	The authors found that IPV on its own and IPV with abuse increased the likelihood of being suspended and for being suspended for aggressive behavior	IPV, child maltreatment	Y
King (2016); qualitative	To understand the interconnectedness between trauma and the events that seemed to precipitate school disciplinary exclusion	Youth aged 14–16 at two voluntary sector alternative education projects	The author suggests that the timing of exclusion is directly related to periods of increased or intense trauma	The author links experiences of trauma or adversity with disciplinary school exclusion arguing that the timing of exclusion is directly related to periods of increased or intense trauma	Parental separation, parental alcohol and substance misuse, domestic violence, bereavement, violence, child abuse, neglect, homelessness poverty, unemployment, family involvement in crime, family bereavement, living in area of high deprivation	Y
Koffman et al. (2009); quantitative	To describe the efficacy of the Juvenile Intervention and Prevention Program (JIPP)	Students who participated in JIPP	The authors found that mild mood disturbances, depression, and suspension rates decreased with JIPP	Not a focus of the paper or the intervention; however, the ripple effects of the intervention addresses PTSD and the program in general reduced suspension	Family and community violence interpersonal violence	N
Lamboy & Lu (2017); theoretical, descriptive, perspective, opinion	To take a deeper look into the practices that No Excuses schools use to pursue the goal of college-for-all, as well as the goal itself	N/A	The authors call for increased research on the effects of disciplinary practices that emphasize rigid conformity, frequent consequences, lack of physical movement, and extreme self-control withing no excuses schools	The authors highlight disciplinary practices that traumatize, retraumatize, or fail to address trauma in No Excuses charter schools	Poverty, incarceration of a loved one, hunger, exposure to violence, adversity experienced in the schools in response to minor infractions, adversity experienced outside of school	Y
Loomis et al. (2020); secondary data analysis	To look at the meditating roles of head injury and problem behaviors in the relationship between violent victimization and suspension and expulsion rates from the Pathways to Desistance study, a study of youth classified as serious offenders	Black and Latino adolescents aged 14–18 who had been found guilty of a felony, or serious misdemeanor offenses	The authors found that students who had a history of a head injury were significantly older, had experienced more victimization, had significantly more problem behaviors, and had been expelled more times	Authors found higher rates of victimization predicted higher rates of suspension and expulsion both directly and indirectly through problem behaviors	Exposure to violence, violent victimization	Y
Loomis (2020); secondary data analysis	To explore the pathway between family violence exposure, children’s behaviors, and suspension in elementary school aged children using the Longitudinal Studies of Child Abuse and Neglect (LONGSCAN) dataset	Children aged 6 and 8 waves of LONGSCAN	The author found that children who are exposed to family violence are more likely to demonstrate disruptive behavior that put them at higher risk for disciplinary outcomes	Authors found a relationship between exposure to IPV in the home and suspension. Authors suggest trauma-informed education may reduce the use of suspensions	Interpersonal violence in the home	Y
McGruder (2019); theoretical, descriptive, perspective, opinion	To provide commentary discussing trauma-informed educational practices developed to aid in recovery in the school environment	N/A	The author provides a commentary on the importance of a trauma-informed approach in schools and toward school discipline. It sets the foundation for why this is important and describes a training program based on SAMHSA’s trauma-informed approach	While not a focus of the paper, there is a view that trauma-informed schools and discipline are important. However, discipline is only mentioned; the focus is on the overall impact of ACEs on academics	ACEs, traumatic childhood events: physical and sexual abuse, abandonment, neglect, death of a loved one, a serious accident, witnessing violence, being bullied, incarceration of a loved one, fire, illness, traffic accidents, natural disasters, and life-threatening situations, extreme poverty is contextualized as a risk factor for adversity exposure rather than as a form of adversity	N
Mittleman (2018); secondary data analysis	To understand (a) whether and (b) in what ways childhood suspensions increase children’s risk of later arrests using Fragile Families Study data	Children and parents who participated in an interview at Year 9 and Year 15 of the study and attended public school at Year 9	The author found that suspensions more than doubled the risk of subsequent arrest which was not explained by postsuspension behavioral changes. Being Black was the single strongest predictor of suspension not explained by differences in behavior and context. A punitive approach to school discipline was seen as promoting rather than preventing juvenile delinquency	The author noted children who have experienced adversity, and potentially abuse, face higher rates of suspensions. The author identified odds ratios (ORs) for specific indicators of adversity. Disadvantaged children faced the greatest rates of suspension, stressing the need for understanding the determinants of suspensions	Married/cohabitating mother drug use, poverty line or below, father incarcerated, caregiver hit child with object, caregiver insulted child with harsh language, caregiver witnessed killing in last year, child protective services (CPS) contact, free lunch in preschool	Y
Morris (2016); theoretical, descriptive, perspective, opinion	To provide a condensed discussion of the “pushout” of Black girls from education and often toward juvenile justice	N/A	The author asserts that Black girls are vulnerable to disciplinary approaches that push them out of school and sometimes into the legal system	The author stresses the importance of understanding the hidden trauma that Black female students experience	Experiencing or witnessing abuse and violence, poverty, being placed in foster care	N
Powell & Coles (2021); qualitative	To explicate the Black specific traumas of Black mothers whose children received suspensions and ways suspension policies reproduce historical trauma	Black mothers with children who had been suspended	The authors suggest that educators of Black children must be attuned to the racial history that frames Black life in the U.S. and beyond	Not a focus in the paper. However, it was noted that Black parents experience trauma when their children are excluded from school and are retraumatized based on historical trauma and anti-Black racism	Trauma caused by suspension, racism/historical trauma	N
Ramirez et al. (2012); quantitative	To determine how multidimensional measures of violence correlate with school absenteeism and suspensions among middle school youth	Sixth-grade students	The authors found that exposure to violence strongly correlated with school attendance and suspensions. ORs for suspension increased from witnessing to victimization to perpetration, and those who were both victims and perpetrators of violence had the highest overall ORs for suspension	The authors found suspension was more common among children who were exposed to violence. They looked at subtypes of violence exposures, noting that exposures to weapons for example had a significant impact	Witnessing slapping, hitting, punching, beatings, knife attacks, shootings, and perpetration of violence, verbal violence, physical violence exposure, weapons-related violence. Included violence exposure both at home and in the community	Y
Rappaport et al. (2006); mixed methods	To discover psychological and environmental dimensions associated with an adolescent’s assignment to specific treatment interventions and identifying barriers to appropriate psychiatric treatment	Male and female students who were suspended for at least 10 days and referred for comprehensive psychiatric evaluations related to aggressive behavior	Authors found that referred students had serious yet undertreated psychopathology. The study found that the school’s increased vigilance had a beneficial effect as it facilitated a referral and access to treatment	Not a focus in the paper. The authors referred generally of the negative impact of adversity on academic outcomes without explicating a link to discipline	Adversity (when a specific circumstance was problematic for the student or their family). Included, death of a parent, domestic violence, gang membership, medical conditions, educational concerns, father absence, parental drug use, parent incarcerated, death of a parent or a mentally ill parent	N
Roseby & Gascoigne (2021); review article including literature review, scoping, systemic, etc.	A systematic review to summarize the existing literature regarding the impact of trauma-informed education programs on academic and academic-related functioning for students with a history of ACEs	N/A	The authors identified eight different trauma-informed theories and models but found overlap with several drawing from the same model of implementation. They assert that trauma-informed education programs can have a positive impact on academic and academic-related functioning for students with a history of childhood adversity	While not a focus of this review, two included studies noted a reduction in suspensions with the institution of trauma-informed care models	Trauma, PTSD, ACEs defined as: child abuse or neglect (sexual, physical, or verbal abuse; emotional or physical neglect), family dysfunction, or stress (incarcerated household member, domestic violence, divorce or separation, death of a parent, household substance abuse, and household member with a mental or physical illness)	N
Ryb et al. (2008); mixed methods	To investigate the association of history of school suspension to risky behaviors and injury history	Adults who attended at a trauma center (medical trauma)	The authors found behavioral dysregulation among injured patients that precedes the development of substance use disorders	Not a focus in the paper, which focused on medical trauma which was found to happen more frequently to individuals with a history of suspension	Medical trauma resulting from injury including physical assault	N
Safer (1986); review article including literature review, scoping, systemic, etc.	A narrative review to summarize pertinent literature on the differential impact of primary vs secondary public education for various student populations	N/A	The author summarized that the biggest predictor of high school suspensions is prior behavior as indicated by suspensions in elementary school	Not a focus in the paper, although it did discuss the increased rate of violence and fighting in high school	Student assault at school	N
Semanchin Jones et al. (2018); qualitative	To build on past research to better understand cross-system youths' experiences and identify areas of opportunity across systems to improve educational outcomes	Youth aged 18–24 who were involved with child protection, were homeless, and had education difficulties before age 18	The study indicates that youth involved in child welfare and/or experiencing homelessness highlighted individual supportive adults across systems, however, overall, youths' experiences in systems were quite negative	Authors stressed understanding student behavior in the context of trauma and adversity. A trauma-informed care approach was encouraged over a punitive approach. Authors suggest suspension and expulsion were applied when schools are intimidated based on size and race	Child welfare involvement, maltreatment, neglect, foster care, homelessness, physical abuse, sexual abuse, chronic neglect, and witnessing violence	Y
Shields et al. (2012); theoretical, descriptive, perspective, opinion	To describe one school’s organization change in implementing the Response Ability Pathways (RAP) program	N/A	The author provides a description of implementation of the RAP program	Not a focus in the paper	Trauma is mentioned but not defined	N
Singletary (2020); review article including literature review, scoping, systemic, etc.	A narrative literature review of trauma and Black male adolescents in America to illustrate the systemic toll of trauma and to highlight the need for research	N/A	The authors assert that the impact of systemic oppression and trauma can result in behaviors to cope that are perceived as problematic in nontrauma environments but is adaptive coping in the face of constant trauma and anti-Black racism	While not a focus in the paper, authors state that a lack of understanding of trauma-related behaviors and symptoms of trauma are interpreted as behavior problems, which in turn leads to discipline without treating the root cause	Exposure to community violence, poverty, racism, police brutality, neglect, abuse, homicide	N
Theriot et al. (2010); quantitative	To multilevel modeling to consider student and school level variables together in a comprehensive evaluation of factors predicting the likelihood of school exclusion	Middle and high school students with at least one reported disciplinary incident during the 2004 to 2005 school year	The authors found that the number of students out of school is “unsettling.” Student poverty, previous number of suspension and severity of last infraction are predictors of exclusion. School level variables (duplicate suspension rate) predict likelihood of being suspended	Student poverty is identified as a predictor of disciplinary exclusion	Poverty (was not contextualized as adversity)	Y
Tuzzolo & Hewitt (2006); theoretical, descriptive, perspective, opinion	To draw attention to the overly punitive discipline and lack of resources in New Orleans schools following the hurricane Katrina flood	N/A	The authors assert that students in New Orleans are being directed to the school-to-prison pipeline due to structurally punitive policies and lack of appropriate resources	Not a focus in the paper, which only indirectly relates adversity and discipline	The flood in New Orleans and aftermath, loss of parents is mentioned	N
Williams et al. (2020); quantitative	To test the hypothesis that a social belonging intervention at the beginning of high school improves academic outcomes (including disciplinary incidents) and reduces racial gaps	Grade 9 students who attended an optional orientation during which the evaluated intervention was delivered	The authors found benefits of the social belonging intervention on racial gaps in the first year of high school across a range of academic outcomes	Not a focus in the paper; however, the paper generally considers social adversity, including racism, and found that the intervention reduces school discipline	“Social adversity” (related to the level of welcoming that students feel entering grade nine), systemic racism	N
Woodward & Fergusson (2000); secondary data analysis	To examine the relationship between peer relationship problems at age 9 and risks of educational under-achievement and unemployment at age 18	Participants from the Christchurch Health and Development Study (CHDS)	The authors identify the importance of the quality of early school-based peer relationships for later academic success and employment	Not a focus in the paper. Considers factors consistent with definition of expanded ACEs; however, the focus is on the impact of peer relationships on later school (including discipline) and work outcomes	Family SES, single-parent family at birth, parental separation, divorce, death, remarriage, or marital reconciliation	N
Zeng et al. (2019); secondary data analysis	To estimate the prevalence of preschool suspension and expulsion based on parental report and understand how ACEs may impact the likelihood of preschool expulsion and suspension using National Survey of Children’s Health (NSCH) data	Caregivers of a child with health concerns under 5 years who attended preschool or childcare	The author found that an estimated 0.2% of the preschool children are expelled at least once and identified specific OR for suspension when experiencing specific forms of adversity (see Table 5)	There is an important and incremental relationship between ACEs and suspension for this population of students	ACEs including poverty, parent or guardian divorced, parental incarceration, domestic violence (slap, hit, kick, punch, or beat up), victim or witness of violence in neighborhood, household member experiencing mental illness, (mentally ill, suicidal, severely depressed), household member substance abuse	Y

Results

Search Results

Our initial search identified 9,716 articles (see Figure 1). Following the removal of duplicates, 7,431 articles remained. A total of 7,359 were excluded during abstract screening, culminating with 72 articles undergoing full-text screening, through which 29 were removed. An additional six were identified using snowballing, expert consultation, and hand searching. Overall, this scoping review found 49 articles that met our inclusion criteria. See Table 2 for a summary table of included sources of evidence.

Figure 1.

Review flow diagram.

Review Findings

Articles were identified from five countries. Table 3 details the total number and relative percentage of articles from each country. The majority (87.8%) of articles were from the United States, with articles from Australia, the United Kingdom, Canada, and New Zealand each nominally represented. No articles from Europe (outside of the United Kingdom), the Caribbean, Central America, South America, Africa, or Asia were identified. Year of publication of papers can be seen in Figure 2. An increased trend of publication in this field over time can be seen, as 25 (52.1%) of the included papers were published between 2010 and 2019 inclusive, and 10 (20.8%) of the papers were published 2019 to January 2021. However, even with this increase, there were only 25 articles that mention both adversity and school discipline in the past decade.

Table 3

Geographical origins of papers

Country	Count (%)
USA	43 (87.8)
Australia	2 (4.1)
United Kingdom	2 (4.1)
Canada	1 (2.0)
New Zealand	1 (2.0)

Figure 2.

Included studies by year.

There was a wide variety of study designs and article types identified in this scoping review (see Table 4). Of the included articles, 29 (59%) presented empirical research. Of these, 22 (45%) presented research involving original data, and 7 (14%) were secondary data analysis. The remaining 20 (41%) articles in this review included 1 systematic review, 5 (10.4%) narrative reviews of literature, 11 (22.9%) theoretical or opinion papers, and 3 program/intervention description papers without a research component.

Table 4

Manuscript type

Manuscript type	Count (%)
Theoretical/text and opinion	11 (22%)
Descriptive	3 (6%)
Narrative review	5 (10%)
Systematic review	1 (2%)
Secondary data	7 (14%)
Original data	22 (45%)
Qualitative	9 (18%)
Cross sectional	6 (12%)
Mixed methods	3 (6%)
Program evaluation	2 (4%)
Case control	1 (2%)
Randomized controlled trial	1 (2%)

RQ1: What Is Known About the Contribution, Role, or Prevalence of Trauma and Adversity for Students Who Are Disciplined at School?

Our analysis determined that in 28 of the 49 papers (55%), trauma, adversity, and school discipline was mentioned but was not a focus, with no explicit discussion or analysis of the relationship between these topics, or the definition of trauma/adversity was inconsistent with the definition applied in this scoping review. Of the 21 papers that did explore adversity and school discipline, 14 were empirical studies. Nine of these 14 papers presented original research (Alloway et al., 2013; Bornstein, 2018; Crosby et al., 2018; Goebert et al., 2004; Kernic et al., 2002; King, 2016; Ramirez et al., 2012; Semanchin Jones et al., 2018; Theriot et al., 2010), and 5 involved secondary data analysis (Beland & Kim, 2016; Loomis, 2020; Loomis et al., 2020; Mittleman, 2018; Zeng et al., 2019).

Ten of the empirical studies presented quantitative research that explicitly evaluated the association between trauma and adversity and school discipline (Alloway et al., 2013; Beland & Kim, 2016; Goebert et al., 2004; Kernic et al., 2002; Loomis, 2020; Loomis et al., 2020; Mittleman, 2018; Ramirez et al., 2012; Theriot et al., 2010; Zeng et al., 2019). Overall, the findings indicate that experiencing adversity is associated with, or predictive of, higher likelihoods of school exclusion (see Table 5). Notably, Zeng and colleagues (2019) found the odds of being suspended or expelled in preschool increased by 80% for every ACE identified. Moreover, they found that when included, ACEs were stronger predictors of disciplinary school exclusion than demographic characteristics including ethnicity. Preschool children were more likely to be suspended or expelled if they had experienced domestic violence (odds ratio [OR] = 10.6, p < .001), lived with mental illness (OR = 9.8, p < .001), adult substance abuse (OR = 4.8, p < .001), were a victim of violence (OR = 4.5, p = .004), lived in high poverty (OR = 3.9, p =.001), had divorced parents (OR = 3.3, p = .001), or a parent who was incarcerated (OR = 3.0, p = .009). Additionally, Kernic and colleagues (2002) found that children in a household with intimate partner violence (IPV) had a relative risk of suspension of 1.8. One secondary data analysis found that higher rates of violent victimization predicted higher rates of exclusionary discipline both directly and indirectly through problem behavior (Loomis et al., 2020), and another found a direct relationship between IPV exposure and suspension as well as an indirect relationship through school behavior (Loomis, 2020). Notably, Loomis (2020) found that within their sample, African American students were significantly more likely be suspended despite being significantly less likely to have witnessed family violence than non–African American students. Therefore, while the pathway between violence exposure to suspension was still significant when including race and gender, being male and African American significantly predicted being suspended more days. Mittleman (2018) found that children involved with child protective services had 50% higher odds of suspension, those who had been hit with an object had 44% higher odds of suspension, and those raised in neighborhoods of disadvantage had a 25% increase in the odds of being suspended for every standard deviation increase in disadvantage. Ramirez and colleagues (2012) found a strong correlation between exposure to violence and suspension, and Theriot and colleagues (2010) found that students who were eligible for free or reduced lunch were 33% more likely to be disciplinarily excluded from school.

Table 5

Forms of adverse childhood experiences and their effects on school discipline.

Author (year)	Sample	Form of adversity (exposure)	Form of school discipline	Outcome (effect measure)
Alloway et al. (2013)	56 adolescents aged 13–18, engaging in antisocial behavior and at high risk of criminal activities	Low SES compared with middle SES	Expulsion	Not significant predictor
		Low SES with one parent compared with middle SES with one parent	Expulsion	Not significant predictor
Beland & Kim (2016)	195 high schools where there had been a shooting	Fatal school shooting	School suspension rates	Not statistically significant
Goebert (2004)	4,164 high school students	Family Criminality	Suspension	OR 2.03
		Family discord (death of a family member, separation, or a family member leaving home)	Suspension	Not a consistent predictor
		Low SES	Suspension	Not a consistent predictor
		Poor family health	Suspension	Not a consistent predictor
Kernic (2002)	48,559 children aged 6 to 17	Maternal IPV	Suspension	RR 1.8 (1.2–2.7)
			Expulsion	RR 1.3 (0.3–4.9)
		Maternal IPV and child abuse	Suspension	RR 2.0 (1.2–3.6)
			Expulsion	RR 1.7 (0.2–11.6)
Loomis (2020)	577 elementary students	Family violence (mediated by disruptive behaviors)	Suspension	B (SE) = 0.08 (0.03)
Loomis et al. (2020)	1,354 serious adolescent offenders aged 14–18	Exposure to violence	Expulsion	b = 0.10, 95% CI: 0.07–0.14, p < .001
			Suspension	b = 1.59, 95% CI: 0.87–2.31, p < .001
Mittleman (2018)	4,898 children	Poverty line or below	Suspended by Year 9	OR 1.25 (0.92–1.69)
		Free lunch in preschool	Suspended by Year 9	OR 1.46 (1.02–2.09)
		Child abuse (hit by belt or object)	Suspended by Year 9	OR 1.44 (1.05–1.99)
		Insulted child with harsh language	Suspended by Year 9	OR 1.47 (0.96–2.27)
		Witnessed killing	Suspended by Year 9	OR 1.32 (0.83–2.08)
		Disadvantaged concentration neighborhood	Suspended by Year 9	OR 1.25 (1.09–1.44)
		Mother drug use	Suspended by Year 9	OR 1.38 (0.90–2.12)
		Father incarcerated	Suspended by Year 9	OR 1.23 (0.92–1.65)
		Child protective services involvement	Suspended by Year 9	OR 1.50 (1.08–2.08)
Ramirez et al. (2012)	24,764 students Kindergarten to Grade 12	Witnessing violence	Suspensions	OR (boys) 1.28; OR (girls) 1.17
		Victimization	Suspension	OR (boys) 1.55; OR (girls) 1.72
		Perpetration	Suspension	OR (boys) 1.96; OR (girls) 1.85
		Victim-perpetration	Suspension	OR (boys) 2.53; OR (girls) 2.43
Theriot et al. (2010)	9,706 middle and high school students	Poverty (receives free/reduced lunch)	School exclusion	OR 1.33
Zeng et al. (2019)	6,100 children under 5	Below poverty line	Suspension or expulsion	OR 3.90 (1.81–8.41)
		Domestic violence	Suspension or expulsion	OR 10.56 (4.58–24.36)
		Victim of violence (victim or witnessed violence in neighborhood)	Suspension or expulsion	OR 4.45 (1.61–12.30)
		Household member with mental illness	Suspension or expulsion	OR 9.82 (4.05–23.83)
		Household member substance abuse	Suspension or expulsion	OR 4.84 (2.04–11.47)
		Divorced	Suspension or expulsion	OR 3.29 (1.58–6.86)
		Parent or guardian incarceration	Suspension or expulsion	OR 2.99 (1.32–6.77)

Note. RR = risk ratio; CI = confidence interval.

There were some inconsistencies across the studies, however. While Goebert and colleagues (2004) found that family criminality significantly increased the odds of suspensions (OR = 2.03), they also identified that family adversity indicators were not strong predictors of school adjustment difficulties, including suspension. Two additional studies noted no significant increased risk of school discipline with exposure to adversity. Beland and Kim (2016) found no statistically significant impact of a fatal school shooting on subsequent suspension rates in that school. Alloway and colleagues (2013) examined a community sample of “antisocial adolescents” to explore the role of potential contributors to antisocial behavior and their impact on being expelled. These authors also considered living in a low- versus medium-SES neighborhood and living in a low SES neighborhood with only one parent compared with middle SES neighborhood with only one parent; neither of these factors were found to be significant influencers on expulsion for their sample.

Three qualitative studies (Bornstein, 2018; King, 2016; Semanchin Jones et al., 2018) and one mixed methods study (Crosby et al., 2018) explored the relationship between trauma and adversity and school discipline. These authors collected interview data and found that those who had experienced school discipline commonly experienced conventional and expanded ACEs. Students attending alternatives to traditional education due to behavioral issues commonly experienced being witnesses to violence, abuse and neglect, or “household dysfunction” including substance misuse and IPV (Crosby et al., 2018; King, 2016). Bornstein (2018) surmised that students were often disciplined for behaviors that were rooted in trauma, which is in line with King’s (2016) finding that the timing of disciplinary exclusion is connected with periods of increased or intense trauma. Semanchin Jones and colleagues (2018) called for understanding behavior in the context of trauma and adversity pointing toward a trauma-informed approach rather than punitive discipline.

RQ2: How Is Adversity or Trauma Theorized, Contextualized, or Understood, Related to School Discipline?

Forms of Adversity Examined

We conducted a TA on the forms of adversity most often included across the 49 manuscripts providing a loose count as an indicator of the forms of adversity considered most relevant within this body of literature. Seven of the papers used the general term trauma. ACE was used in four manuscripts without providing a definition of ACEs, and in five additional manuscripts where forms of ACEs were specified; ACEs were not consistently defined across these papers. Abuse was identified in 19 manuscripts, with 5 of those specifying sexual abuse, 6 specifying physical abuse, and 4 emotional abuse. Forms of IPV were identified in 10 articles; neglect was identified in 9; separation, divorce, single-parent household, or nontraditional family structure was identified in 9 articles; family member involved in crime or incarcerated in 9; parental or household substance misuse in 8; death of a family member in 6; and parental mental health concern or suicide was found in 4 of the articles.

Expanded forms of adversity were relatively well represented across the papers. Indicators of poverty were the most frequently included expanded form of adversity: living in disadvantaged and low-income communities, homelessness, and receiving reduced or free meals were found in 17 articles. Fourteen papers discussed violence in a general way, including war, exposure to violence, and witnessing violence without specifying the location. Eleven of the papers discussed neighborhood safety, community, or school violence. Indicators of racism, discrimination, and structural inequity related to race was included in seven papers. Removal from family home or foster care was included in four papers, with one additional discussing residential treatment. Other situations including, but not limited to, police brutality, fire, car accident, natural disaster, and medical trauma were mentioned. Finally, four of the papers referred to school discipline in trauma terms, for example, characterizing school expulsion as a form of trauma examined.

While the representation of expanded forms of adversity is encouraging, our analysis determined that expanded adversities were less often included in the empirical studies we identified as addressing the relationship between exposure to adversity and school discipline. For example, one quantitative study (Williams et al., 2020) and two qualitative studies (Fitzgerald et al., 2019; Powell & Coles, 2021) discussed racism; however, none of these three studies were categorized by our team as directly studying the relationship between racism and discipline. Seven studies categorized as including a focus on adversity and discipline included indicators of low SES (Alloway et al., 2013; Goebert et al., 2004; King, 2016; Mittleman, 2018; Semanchin Jones et al., 2018; Theriot et al., 2010; Zeng et al., 2019), and five specified community or school violence (Beland & Kim, 2016; Bornstein, 2018; Loomis et al., 2020; Ramirez et al., 2012; Zeng et al., 2019).

Failing to Understand and Address Students With Trauma Histories

A prominent theme was a failure to understand and address the needs of students with trauma histories, resulting in the application of disciplinary actions and exclusion from school (Baroni et al., 2020; Bornstein, 2018; Delale-O’Connor et al., 2017; Howard, 2016; Hyman et al., 1988; Lamboy & Lu, 2017; Morris, 2016; Singletary, 2020). Bornstein (2018) described that students were often excluded from class through discipline for behavior rooted in trauma. While behavior was seen to play a role in the discipline of students exposed to trauma (Loomis, 2020; Loomis et al., 2020), there was also a direct relationship found between higher rates of adversity and higher rates of school discipline (Loomis et al., 2020). Singletary (2020) suggests that a lack of understanding of trauma-related behaviors and symptoms may be interpreted as behavior problems, resulting in discipline without treating the root cause. Moreover, both King (2016) and Semanchin Jones and colleagues (2018) identified disciplinary exclusion as occurring at periods when students were experiencing significant forms of adversity and trauma. Semanchin Jones and colleagues interviewed youth who discussed the need for educational institutions, child welfare, and homeless services to better understand their negative experiences and provide support rather than exclusionary punishment. These findings are in line with those of Fitzgerald and colleagues (2019), who identified that schools need to be places where students can let their guard down rather than serving as institutions where further risk of violence and punishment is high.

In many articles, the experiences of Black students and other students of color were viewed through a critically informed lens. School discipline was contextualized as a way to maintain systemic racial inequities and as a tool to punish or control students of color who are coping with trauma, which in turn increases stress and anxiety, and can be retraumatizing (Ashworth et al., 2008; Bailey et al., 2019; Delale-O’Connor et al., 2017; Dutil, 2020; Lamboy & Lu, 2017; Semanchin Jones et al., 2018). Authors highlighted the difficulty that White dominant systems have in recognizing symptoms of trauma students may exhibit, particularly Black students and other students of color, stressing that disciplinary responses are likely to increase stress and anxiety and alienate these students from necessary resources (Bornstein, 2018; Dutil, 2020; Fitzgerald et al., 2019; Henderson et al., 2019; Joseph et al., 2020). Baumle (2018) and Morris (2016) argued that unaddressed or hidden trauma is seen as influencing the disproportionate criminalization of low income and female students of color, with school discipline serving as the pathway. Joseph and colleagues (2020) argued that the lack of culturally responsive and trauma-informed disciplinary practices could be contributing to the disproportion within discipline. Within this theme, there was a focus on building social support and attending to the cultural and racial realities of students, integrating parents and community (Henderson et al., 2019; Joseph et al., 2020). These ideas were congruent with Mittleman’s (2018) finding that students who attend an elementary school with at least one guidance counselor have 22% lower odds of being suspended.

Trauma-Informed Care

We found 14 articles that promoted the application of trauma-informed care within school discipline (Baroni et al., 2020; Basford et al., 2020; Bornstein, 2018; Crosby et al., 2018; Day et al., 2017; Dorado et al., 2016; Dutil, 2020; Gill et al., 2016; Hoover, 2019; Howard, 2016; Joseph et al., 2020; Loomis, 2020; McGruder, 2019; Semanchin Jones et al., 2018). Six qualitative studies (Bornstein, 2018; Crosby et al., 2018; Day et al., 2017; Fitzgerald et al., 2019; King, 2016; Semanchin Jones et al., 2018) and one secondary data analysis (Baroni et al., 2020) explored the importance of trauma-informed care to school discipline. Among these, three discussed the Monarch Room, a designated classroom that is available and used throughout the school day to assist students to de-escalate situations and allow them to return to the classroom (Baroni et al., 2020; Crosby et al., 2018; Day et al., 2017). Additionally, these authors identified that the Monarch Room offered an improvement over zero-tolerance approaches as it sought to support students, rather than immediately punishing or excluding them. Across the articles, trauma-informed care was presented as necessary, given that students who are experiencing periods of challenging life experiences are more likely to be permanently excluded from education (King, 2016). McGruder (2019) discussed the significance of implementing trauma-informed schooling to better help students who are experiencing various forms of adversity and trauma; while Hoover (2019) discussed how trauma-responsive schools are able to provide safer and more productive environments for students, leading to increased graduation rates, attendance, classroom behavior, and safety. Hoover (2019), Joseph and colleagues (2020), and McGruder (2019) each explored concepts of trauma-informed discipline and restorative practices and provided frameworks for how this could best be implemented. These authors discussed the relationships between racially disproportional school suspensions, ACE exposure, and trauma-informed schools within a critical race theory framework. Moreover, these authors highlighted that in order for schools to adequately address the socioemotional needs of students, multitiered interventions, trauma-informed care practices, and equity-focused and antiracist practices are required (Joseph et al., 2020).

Interventions and Programs

We identified 12 papers that discussed intervention programs or classrooms used to address school discipline (Ashworth et al., 2008; Baroni et al., 2020; Basford et al., 2020; Bennett, 2007; Bornstein, 2018; Coleman, 2015; Crosby et al., 2018; Day et al., 2017; Dorado et al., 2016; Gill et al., 2016; Koffman et al., 2009; Williams et al., 2020). Of these 12 papers, 3 were categorized as having a focus related to trauma and discipline; 2 of these were focused on the Monarch Room (Crosby et al., 2018; Day et al., 2017) and 1 on the Transformative Leadership Framework, a trauma-informed approach to discipline, applied to an urban elementary school (Bornstein, 2018).

Four of the 12 papers described programs implemented at the elementary school level (Ashworth et al., 2008; Bornstein, 2018; Dorado et al., 2016; Gill et al., 2016). These included three case studies of public school-based programs: a school policing program (Gill et al., 2016), the creation of a restorative justice center as an alternative to detention (Ashworth et al., 2008), and the addition of the Transformative Leadership Framework (Bornstein, 2018). Additionally, Dorado and colleagues (2016) evaluated the implementation of the Healthy Environments and Response to Trauma in Schools (HEARTS) program, a whole school multilevel prevention and intervention program for reducing out-of-school suspension and expulsion. Five years following the implementation, the authors found that there was a 95% decrease in out of school suspension compared with the year prior to the implementation of the program. Another study conducted a randomized controlled trial on social belongingness in high school (Williams et al., 2020).

Five studies described programs or alternative schooling opportunities for individuals who had already experienced school discipline, were no longer part of traditional schooling, or were court-involved (Baroni et al., 2020; Basford et al., 2020; Coleman, 2015; Crosby et al., 2018; Day et al., 2017). Alternative education programs were primarily focused on restoration and the prevention of previously disciplined students entering the school-to-prison pipeline. As previously noted, three studies (Baroni et al., 2020; Crosby et al., 2018; Day et al., 2017) discussed the Monarch Room. Crosby and colleagues (2018) found that students consistently used the Monarch Room and that students found the Monarch Room to be an effective tool for behavior de-escalation, while Baroni and colleages (2020) found that the implementation of a Monarch Room at a “second chance” public charter school was associated with a reduction in suspensions. Two studies discussed educational institutions serving as alternatives to traditional schooling (Basford et al., 2020; Coleman, 2015). Basford and colleagues (2020) described the success of the High School for Recording Arts (HSRA). The HSRA was an alternative education program for students, 85% of whom had been removed from traditional schooling experiences. The HSRA program, which focused on using trauma-informed services and independent advising, had graduated between 76% and 96% of its seniors between 2014 and 2019 (Basford et al., 2020). Coleman (2015) performed a qualitative study discussing the utility of an alternative education institution for students who were previously expelled and found that while students described expulsion as traumatic, a consistent theme was the importance of necessary interventions students received through the alternative education program (Coleman, 2015).

School-to-Prison Pipeline

We identified five papers that discuss the school-to-prison pipeline theme (Basford et al., 2020; Baumle, 2018; Delale-O’Connor et al., 2017; Dutil, 2020; Tuzzolo & Hewitt, 2006). This theme contextualizes school discipline, particularly suspension and expulsion, as the beginning of a pathway away from school and toward the criminal legal system for students. Two authors built on this conceptualization to identify the trauma-to-prison pipeline (Baumle, 2018) and the cradle-to-prison pipeline (Delale-O’Connor et al., 2017) to articulate the causal role of trauma and adverse experiences in this pathway.

Discussion

The aim of this scoping review was to map out the state of the literature on school discipline related to factors consistent with trauma and adversity. We applied a critical and ecological systemic approach within our trauma and adversity framework. Empirical studies, as well as literature reviews, theoretical, opinion, and descriptive papers were included to explore both the state of knowledge and the way adversity or trauma is understood or contextualized related to school discipline. As per the general aim of scoping review methodology, we were most interested in the state and nature of the literature, exploring gaps in the literature and the overall state of research activity, and did not assess the quality of the studies in our sample.

First, the characteristics of the papers included in this scoping review point toward a significant gap in our knowledge. When examining the geographical location of the papers, very few of the identified articles were from outside of the United States. We concur with Valdebenito and colleagues (2019), who stressed the importance of cross-cultural research in the area of exclusionary discipline. These authors highlight that approaches effective in some countries or cultures may not be as effective in others and, therefore, communities need context-specific knowledge to be able to make appropriate and effective decisions. Given that the extant research is United States–centric, and that context matters for studies of school discipline, research from other countries would be an important extension of current knowledge. Moreover, international studies could also shed light on the context in the United States by examining the effects of racial trauma, anti-Blackness, and bias against Indigenous students or members of similarly minoritized groups across contexts. The findings, however, indicate a growing interest in this area, as over half of the articles were published between 2010 and 2019, with an additional 20% since 2019.

Of the 49 articles that met our overall inclusion criteria, we identified only 14 empirical studies that we categorized as focused on the relationship or intersection of adversity and school discipline. This burgeoning body of research pointed toward the relevance of adversity or trauma within school discipline. The findings from 8 of the 10 quantitative studies, the three qualitative study, and the one mixed method study identified that exposure to adversity or experiences of trauma are important in the school discipline process. Adverse experiences were common among students who have been disciplined in school (Bornstein, 2018; Crosby, 2016; King, 2016; Semanchin Jones et al., 2018) and were in fact predictive of discipline, particularly exclusionary discipline such as suspension (Kernic et al., 2002; Loomis, 2018; Loomis et al., 2020; Mittleman, 2018; Theriot et al., 2010; Zeng et al., 2019). Therefore, when considering our first research question, we determined that the body of knowledge is small but growing and indicates that experiences of adversity or trauma play a significant and potentially contributing role in school discipline, including suspension and expulsion.

However, research is needed to more fully understand this relationship and the ways that trauma and adversity are related to school discipline and, ultimately, academic and long term outcomes. As noted, the current literature on disproportionate application of school discipline holds little focus on the role of adverse experiences despite this emergent body of knowledge indicating there is a relationship between the two. We propose that disproportionate exposure to adversity may play a contributing or causal role in disproportionate school discipline. The mechanisms through which this results in disproportion, however, remain unclear. For example, building on Singletary’s (2020) ideas, a lack of understanding of trauma-related behaviors and symptoms may lead to these being interpreted as behavior problems, resulting in discipline without treating the root cause. From a privileged worldview, in which adverse experiences are infrequent, educators may not account for, or recognize, symptoms of trauma within students, particularly within a context of historical and structural bias related to specific students (Sanders et al., 2022). This is an important theoretical foundation from which to explore the individual and social processes that drive disproportionate school discipline. This will, in turn, generate the necessary knowledge to guide policy and practice related to trauma-informed discipline.

We used TA to explore our second research question, which provided an overview of the ways that adversities or trauma are theorized, contextualized, or understood related to school discipline. We found that across the 49 included articles, there is a common recognition that adversity and trauma are important factors within school discipline despite the dearth of empirical research.

It is noteworthy that there appears to be no consistent conceptualization of trauma or adversity across the papers, including those we categorized as being focused on the interaction between adversity and school discipline. Eleven papers referenced experiences such as “trauma” or “ACEs” without clearly defining these terms. When ACEs were clearly identified or defined, there was inconsistency in the forms that were included. This is not unique to this body of literature, as there has been ongoing evaluation and expansion of the ACEs constructs (Bethell et al., 2017; Cronholm et al., 2015; Finkelhor et al., 2015; Turner et al., 2020).

It was encouraging to find that expanded forms of adversity were relatively well represented across the papers. We found general acceptance of the implications of poverty within school discipline as this was the most often included expanded form of adversity. However, indicators of poverty were not consistently contextualized as adversity. We deem this to be important because if poverty is contextualized simply as a demographic consideration, the global impact may be missed, and the knowledge base of trauma and trauma-informed approaches may be less likely to be employed when supporting students. Violence, with an unspecified location, and violence in the community or school were also relatively well represented. However, it is important to identify that only seven papers included indicators of racism, discrimination, and structural inequity. This is particularly noteworthy given the significant body of work identifying the disproportionate application of school discipline among non-White students, most significantly those who identify as Black and Indigenous, and the relevance of the school-to-prison pipeline (Cuellar & Markowitz, 2015; Dutil, 2020; James & Turner, 2017; Losen, 2015; Mallett, 2017; Morris, 2015). As we noted earlier, the extant literature on school discipline has predominately focused on identifying its disproportionate application.

Our analysis determined that expanded adversities were less often included in those empirical studies identified as addressing the relationship between exposure to adversity and school discipline. Only three empirical studies included racism, and none of these were categorized by our team as directly focused on the relationship between experiences of racism and school discipline. It should again be noted that there is a strong body of research identifying the disproportionate application of school discipline, which has been related to systemic racism. Given our search terms, the breadth of this research would not have been included in the current scoping review as racism is not consistently contextualized as a form of adversity. Like poverty, we feel that it is worth explicitly acknowledging racism as a form of adversity to foster recognition of the impact on school discipline outcomes. Racial trauma or racial stress involves real or perceived experiences of racial discrimination including threats of harm, injury, humiliation, shame, or witnessing harm to others of a similar racial identity (Carter, 2007; Comas-Díaz et al., 2019). Racial trauma and racial discrimination can result in symptomology consistent with traditionally defined post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) such as hypervigilance, flashbacks, nightmares, avoidance, suspiciousness, and physical symptoms (Carter, 2007; Comas-Díaz et al., 2019). Moreover, racial trauma does not consist of one incident, and perception of discrimination is associated with PTSD, panic disorder, and substance misuse (Carter, 2007; Chou et al., 2012; Comas-Díaz et al., 2019; Sibrava et al., 2019).

The failure to understand and address trauma histories amongst students who have been disciplined was a prominent theme amongst the included articles. When students’ history of adversity and trauma was not acknowledged, authors argued that they were more likely to be dealt with through discipline, including being excluded from school. It was argued that trauma-related behaviors and symptoms of trauma are interpreted as behavior problems, which, in turn, leads to discipline without treating the root cause and limiting student access to support. Given the association between experiences of adversity and being disciplined that we found in the empirical research, it is imperative that discipline practices and policies become trauma-responsive to protect vulnerable students. Many of the authors argued for a critical lens to understand the ways that White dominant systems interpret students’ coping strategies, with these systems upholding inequitable discipline practices that ultimately block access to resources; increases stress; and retraumatizes students, families, and communities (Bornstein, 2018; Dutil, 2020; Fitzgerald et al., 2019; Henderson et al., 2019; Joseph et al., 2020). Moreover, unaddressed or hidden trauma was identified as contributing to the disproportionate school-to-prison pipeline (Baumle, 2018; Morris, 2016).

The theme of trauma-informed care was found in 14 articles. These authors promoted the application of trauma-informed care within school discipline. However, it was asserted that educators must also attend to the cultural and racial realities of students (Henderson et al., 2019; Hoover, 2019; Joseph et al., 2020; McGruder, 2019). While only 3 of the 12 papers that involved programs or alternative schooling opportunities were categorized as specifically focused on adversity or trauma and discipline, trauma-informed approaches were common amongst these programs, many of which indirectly supported students who had been disciplined.

Conclusions

This scoping review highlights the importance of ongoing research related to experiences of trauma or adversity and school discipline. Given the identified relevance of adversity and trauma to school discipline, paired with the dearth of research in this area, this scoping review lends support for increased focus, particularly greater empirical research, and research beyond the United States. In addition to the profound gaps in the geographic origins of the papers, there was a noted inconsistency in the conceptualization of trauma or adversity. The current findings indicate a need for research that incorporates expanded forms of adversity and contextualizes important factors, such as poverty, and racism as adversity. We believe this is an important step toward acknowledging the hidden and therefore unaddressed trauma among students being disproportionally disciplined. Moreover, it is important that trauma-related behaviors and symptoms of trauma are appropriately understood and supported rather than viewed as behavior problems and managed through punitive or exclusionary discipline without support. We would like to echo the calls of authors such as Semanchin Jones and colleagues (2018) for understanding behavior in the context of trauma and adversity pointing toward trauma-informed and culturally attuned approaches to school discipline.