Students with disabilities experience poorer post-school outcomes compared with their peers without disabilities. Existing experimental literature on “what works” for improving these outcomes is rare; however, a rapidly growing body of research investigates correlational relationships between experiences in school and post-school outcomes. A meta-analytic review provides means for assessing which experiences show the strongest relationships with long-term outcomes and variability in these relationships by outcome, research design, and population. This article presents a meta-analysis of in-school predictors of postsecondary employment, education, and independent living of youth with disabilities, examining 35 sources and 27 samples (N = 16,957) published from January of 1984 through May of 2010. Predictors showed differing relationships with education versus employment. Some of the least studied predictors, especially those involving multistakeholder collaboration, had larger effects than predictors more typically the focus of correlational research. Implications for future research and practice are considered.
AhnS.BeckerB. (2011). Incorporating quality scores in meta-analysis. Journal of Educational and Behavioral Statistics, 36, 555–585. doi:10.3102/1076998610393968
2.
AyresK. M.LangoneJ.BoonR. T.NormanA. (2006). Computer-based instruction for purchasing skills. Education and Training in Developmental Disabilities, 41, 253–263.
3.
*BaerR. M.DavisoA. W.FlexerR. W.QueenR. M.MeindlR. S. (2011). Students with intellectual disabilities: Predictors of transition outcomes. Career Development for Exceptional Children, 34, 132–141. doi:10.1177/0885728811399090
4.
*BaerR. M.FlexerR. W.BeckS.AmstutzN.HoffmanL.BrothersJ.. . .ZechmanC. (2003). A collaborative follow-up study on transition service utilization and post-school outcomes. Career Development for Exceptional Individuals, 26, 7–25. doi:10.1177/088572880302600102
5.
BatesP. E.CuvoT.MinerC. A.KorabekC. A. (2001). A simulated and community-based instruction involving persons with mild and moderate mental retardation. Research in Developmental Disabilities, 22, 95–115. doi:10.1016/S0891-4222(01)00060-9
6.
*BenzM.LindstromL.YovanoffP. (2000). Improving graduation and employment outcomes of students with disabilities: Predictive factors and student perspectives. Exceptional Children, 66, 509–529.
7.
*BenzM.YovanoffP.DorenB. (1997). School-to-work components that predict postschool success for students with and without disabilities. Exceptional Children, 63,151–165.
8.
*BlackorbyJ.HancockG. R.SiegelS. (1993). Human capital and structural explanations of post-school success for youth with disabilities: A latent variable exploration of the National Longitudinal Transition Study. Menlo Park, CA: SRI International.
9.
BorensteinM.HedgesL. V.HigginsJ. P. T.RothsteinH. R. (2005). Comprehensive meta-analysis, Version 2. Englewood, NJ: Biostat.
10.
BorensteinM.HedgesL. V.HigginsJ. P. T.RothsteinH. R. (2009). Introduction to meta-analysis. West Sussex, England: Wiley.
11.
BronfenbrennerU. (1979). The ecology of human development: Experiments by nature and design. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.
12.
*BullisM.DavisC.BullB.JohnsonB. (1995). Transition achievement among young adults with deafness: What variables relate to success?Rehabilitation Counseling Bulletin, 39, 130–150.
13.
CametoR.WagnerM.NewmanL.BlackorbyJ.JavitzH. (2000). National Longitudinal Transition Study–2 (NLTS2) sampling plan. Menlo Park, CA: SRI International. Retrieved from http://www.nlts2.org/studymeth/index.html
14.
*CobbR. M.CrumpW. D. (1984). Post-school status of young adults identified as learning disabled while enrolled in public schools: A comparison of those enrolled and not enrolled in learning disabilities programs (Final Report). Washington, DC: Office of Special Education and Rehabilitation Services, Division of Educational Services.
15.
CobbR. B.LipscombS.WolgemuthJ.SchulteT.VeliquetteA.AlwellM.. . .WeinbergA. (2013). Improving post-high school outcomes for transition-age students with disabilities: An evidence review (NCEE 2013-4011). Washington, DC: National Center for Education Evaluation and Regional Assistance, Institute of Education Sciences. Retrieved from http://ies.ed.gov/ncee/pubs/20134011/pdf/20134012.pdf
16.
CohenJ. (1988). Statistical power analysis for the behavioral sciences (2nd ed.). Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.
CooperH. M. (1998). Synthesizing research: A guide for literature reviews (3rd ed.). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.
19.
*DaDeppoL. M. (2009). Integration factors related to the academic success and intent to persist of college students with learning disabilities. Learning Disabilities Research & Practice, 24, 122–131. doi:10.1111/j.1540-5826.2009.00286.x
20.
*DorenB.BenzM. (1998). Employment inequality revisited: Predictors of better employment outcomes for young women with disabilities in transition. Journal of Special Education, 31, 425–442. doi:10.1177/002246699803100402
*FabianE.LentR.WillisS. (1998). Predicting work transition outcomes for students with disabilities: Implications for counselors. Journal of Counseling & Development, 76, 311–316. doi:10.1002/j.1556-6676.1998.tb02547.x
23.
*FardigD. B.AlgozzineR. F.SchwartzS. E.HenselJ. W.WestlingD. L. (1985). Postsecondary vocational adjustment of rural, mildly handicapped students. Exceptional Children, 52, 115–121.
24.
*FlexerR.DavisoA.BaerR.McMahanQ. R.MeindlR. (2011). An epidemiological model of transition and postschool outcomes. Career Development for Exceptional Individuals, 34, 83–94. doi:10.1177/0885728810387922
25.
Foster-FishmanP. G.BehrensT. R. (2007). Systems change reborn: Rethinking our theories, methods, and efforts in human services reform and community-based change. American Journal of Community Psychology, 39, 191–196. doi:10.1007/s10464-007-9104-5
26.
*FourqureanJ. M.MeisgeierC.SwankP. R.WilliamsR. E. (1991). Correlates of postsecondary employment outcomes for young adults with learning disabilities. Journal of Learning Disabilities, 24, 400–405. doi:10.1177/002221949102400704
27.
HaberM. G.LokerT.DeschênesN.ClarkH. B. (2008). Career development for transition-aged youth with emotional disturbances: Exemplary practices of Florida mental health and substance abuse agencies (Agency for Health Care Administration Series, No. 220-115). Tampa: University of South Florida, Louis de la Parte Florida Mental Health Institute. Retrieved from http://cfs.cbcs.usf.edu/_docs/publications/AHCA_TAY08.pdf
28.
*HalpernA.YovanoffP.DorenB.BenzM. (1995). Predicting participation in postsecondary education for school leavers with disabilities. Exceptional Children, 62, 151–164.
29.
*HarveyM. W. (2002). Comparison and postsecondary transitional outcomes between students with and without disabilities by secondary Vocational Education participation: Findings from the National Education Longitudinal Study. Career Development for Exceptional Individuals, 25, 99–122. doi:10.1177/088572880202500202
30.
HasnainR.BalcazarF. (2009). Predicting community-versus facility-based employment for transition-aged young adults with disabilities: The role of race, ethnicity, and support systems. Journal of Vocational Rehabilitation, 31, 175–188. doi:10.3233/JVR-2009-0487
31.
*HealL.RuschF. (1994). Prediction of residential independence of special education high school students. Research in Developmental Disabilities, 15, 223–243. doi:10.1016/0891-4222(94)90013-2
32.
*HealL.RuschF. (1995). Predicting employment for students who leave special education high school programs. Exceptional Children, 61, 472–487.
33.
*HealL.KhojuM.RuschF. (1997). Predicting quality of life of youth after they leave special education high school programs. Journal of Special Education, 31, 279–299. doi:10.1177/002246699703100301
34.
*HealL.KhojuM.RuschF.HarnischD. (1999). Predicting quality of life of students who have left special education high school programs. American Journal on Mental Retardation, 104, 305–319.
35.
*HealL.RubinS.RuschF. (1998). Residential independence of former special education high school students: A second look. Research in Developmental Disabilities, 19, 1–26. doi:10.1016/S0891-4222(97)00026-7
36.
HedgesL.OlkinI. (1985). Statistical methods for meta-analysis. San Diego, CA: Academic Press.
37.
HunterJ. E.SchmidtF. L. (2004). Methods of meta-analysis: Correcting error and bias in research findings (2nd ed.). Newbury Park, CA: Sage.
38.
Institute of Medicine & National Research Council. (2014). Investing in the health and well-being of young adults. Washington, DC: National Academies Press.
39.
*KarpurA.ClarkH. P.CaproniP.SternerH. (2005). Transition to adult roles for students with emotional/behavioral disturbances: A follow-up study of student exiters from STEPs to Success. Career Development for Exceptional Individuals, 28, 36–46.
40.
KohlerP. D. (1993). Best practices in transition: Substantiated or implied?Career Development for Exceptional Individuals, 18, 33–50.
LandmarkL. J.JuS.ZhangD. (2010). Substantiated best practices in transition: Fifteen plus years later. Career Development for Exceptional Individuals, 33, 165–176. doi:10.1177/0885728810376410
43.
LeffH. S.ConleyJ.ElmoreS. (2005). Making the grade: A review and comparison of selected evidence-grading systems. Cambridge, MA: Human Services Research Institute. Retrieved from http://tecathsri.org/whats_new.asp
44.
LehrC. A.TanC. S.YsseldykeJ. (2009). Alternative schools: A synthesis of state-level policy and research. Remedial and Special Education, 30, 19–32. doi:10.1177/0741932508315645
45.
LipseyM. W.PuzioK.YunC.HebertM. A.Steinka-FryK.ColeM. W.. . .BusickM. D. (2012). Translating the statistical representation of the effects of education interventions into more readily interpretable forms (NCSER 2013-3000). Washington, DC: National Center for Special Education Research, Institute of Education Sciences, U.S. Department of Education. Retrieved from http://ies.ed.gov/ncser/pubs/20133000/
46.
*LueckingR.FabianE. (2000). Paid internships and employment success for youth in transition. Career Development for Exceptional Individuals, 23, 205–221. doi:10.1177/088572880002300207
47.
*McAfeeJ.McNaughtonD. (1997). Transitional outcomes—Job satisfaction of workers with disabilities: Part one: General job satisfaction. Journal of Vocational Rehabilitation, 8, 135–142. doi:10.1016/S1052-2263(96)00247-4
48.
McGrathR. E.MeyerG. J. (2006). When effect sizes disagree: The case ofr and d. Psychological Methods, 11, 386–401. doi:10.1037/1082-989X.11.4.386
49.
MonahanK.LeeJ.SteinbergL. (2011). Revisiting the impact of part-time work on adolescent adjustment: Distinguishing between selection and socialization using propensity score matching. Child Development, 82, 96–112. doi:10.1111/j.1467-8624.2010.01543.x
50.
National Alliance for Secondary Education and Transition. (2005). National standards and quality indicators: Transition toolkit for systems improvement. Minneapolis: University of Minnesota, National Center on Secondary Education and Transition. Retrieved from http://www.nasetalliance.org/toolkit/index.htm
51.
National Center for Education Evaluation and Regional Assistance, Institute of Education Sciences. (2011). What works Clearinghouse: Procedures and standards handbook (Vol. 2.1). Washington, DC: National Center for Education Evaluation and Regional Assistance, Institute of Education Sciences, U.S. Department of Education. Retrieved from http://ies.ed.gov/ncee/wwc/
52.
National Collaborative on Workforce and Disability for Youth. (2009). Guideposts for success: A framework for families preparing youth for adulthood (2nd ed.). Washington, DC: Institute for Educational Leadership. Retrieved from http://www.ncwd-youth.info/family-guideposts-information-brief
53.
NewmanL.WagnerM.KnokeyA. M.MarderC.NagleK.ShaverD.WeiX. (2011). The post-high school outcomes of young adults with disabilities up to 8 years after high school. A report from the National Longitudinal Transition Study-2 (NLTS2) (NCSER 2011-3005). Menlo Park, CA: SRI International. Retrieved from http://nlts2.org/reports/
54.
*NiemannY. (2007). The effects of transition intervention on students with mild disabilities (Unpublished doctoral dissertation). University of Louisville, KY.
55.
PetersonR. A.BrownS. P. (2005). On the use of beta coefficients in meta-analysis. Journal of Applied Psychology, 90, 175–181. doi:10.1037/0021-9010.90.1.175
56.
*RabrenK.DunnC.ChambersD. (2002). Predictors of post-high school employment among young adults with disabilities. Career Development for Exceptional Individuals, 25, 25–40. doi:10.1177/088572880202500103
57.
*RabrenK.HallG.BrownC. (2003). Employment of transition-age rehabilitation consumers: Demographic and programmatic factors. Journal of Vocational Rehabilitation, 18, 145–152.
58.
*RepettoJ. B.WebbK. W.GarvanC. W.WashingtonT. (2002). Connecting student outcomes with transition practices in Florida. Career Development for Exceptional Individuals, 25, 123–139. doi:10.1177/088572880202500203
59.
*RoesslerR. T.BrolinD. E.JohnsonJ. M. (1990). Factors affecting employment success and quality of life: A one year follow-up of students in special education. Career Development for Exceptional Individuals, 13, 95–107. doi:10.1177/088572889001300201
60.
RosenthalR. (1991). Meta-analytic procedures for social research. Newbury Park, CA: Sage.
61.
RubinD. B. (1992). Meta-analysis: Literature synthesis or effect-size surface estimation?Journal of Educational and Behavioral Statistics, 17, 363–374.
62.
*RylanceB. (1998). Predictors of post-high school employment for youth identified as severely emotionally disturbed. Journal of Special Education, 32, 184–192. doi:10.1177/002246699803200305
63.
ShafferS.ShevitzL. (2001). She bakes and he builds: Gender bias in the curriculum. In RoussoH.WehmeyerM. L. (Eds.), Double jeopardy: Addressing gender inequity in special education (pp. 115–132). Albany: State University of New York Press.
64.
*SchalockR.WolzenB.RossI.ElliottB.WerbelG.PetersonK. (1986). Post-secondary community placement of handicapped students: A five-year follow-up. Learning Disability Quarterly, 9, 295–303. doi:10.2307/1510383
65.
SchechtmanE. (2002). Odds ratio, relative risk, absolute risk reduction, and the number needed to treat—Which of these should we use?Value in Health, 5, 431–436. doi:10.1046/J.1524-4733.2002.55150.x
66.
*ShandraC.HoganD. (2008). School-to-work program participation and the post-high school employment of young adults with disabilities. Journal of Vocational Rehabilitation, 29, 117–130.
67.
TestD. W.FowlerC. H.RichterS. M.MazzottiV.WhiteJ.Walker. . .KorteringL. (2009). Evidence-based practices in secondary transition. Career Development for Exceptional Individuals, 32, 155–128. doi:10.1177/0885728809336859
68.
TestD. W.MazzottiV. L.MustianA. L.FowlerC. H.KorteringL. J.KohlerP. H. (2009). Evidence-based secondary transition predictors for improving postschool outcomes for students with disabilities. Career Development for Exceptional Individuals, 32, 160–181. doi:10.1177/0885728809346960
69.
ThompsonB.DiamondK. E.McWilliamR.SnyderP.SnyderS. W. (2005). Evaluating the quality of evidence from correlational research for evidence-based practice. Exceptional Children, 71, 181–194.
*WagnerM.BlackorbyJ.CametoR.NewmanL. (1993). What makes a difference? Influences on postschool outcomes of youth with disabilities (The Third Comprehensive Report from the National Longitudinal Transition Study of Special Education Students). Menlo Park, CA: SRI International.
72.
*WehmeyerM.PalmerS. (2003). Adult outcomes for students with cognitive disabilities three-years after high school: The impact of self-determination. Education and Training in Developmental Disabilities, 38(2), 131–144.
73.
*WehmeyerM.SchwartzM. (1997). Self-determination and positive adult outcomes: A follow-up study of youth with mental retardation or learning disabilities. Exceptional Children, 63, 245–255.
74.
WehmeyerM. L.SchwartzM. (2001). Research on gender bias in special education services. In RoussoH.WehmeyerM. L. (Eds.), Double jeopardy: Addressing gender equity in special education (pp. 271–288). Albany: State University of New York Press.
75.
*WhiteJ.WeinerJ. S. (2004). Influence of least restrictive environment and community based training on integrated employment outcomes for transitioning students with severe disabilities. Journal of Vocational Rehabilitation, 21, 149–156.
76.
WittenburgD. C.MaagE. (2002). School to where? A literature review on economic outcomes of youth with disabilities. Journal of Vocational Rehabilitation, 17, 265–280.
