Academic English (AE) refers to the language used in school to help students acquire and use knowledge. This article reviews current literature to determine what is known about the nature of AE within the context of K–12 schooling. It describes how AE is conceptualized in the education research literature, how these conceptualizations are realized in instructional practices, and the implications of these conceptualizations for teacher education and professional development. The student population that is the primary focus of the article is English language learners, but the findings have implications for all students who struggle with learning AE. The article raises critical challenges in defining and operationalizing AE for instruction and suggests areas for further inquiry.
AdamsT. L. (2003). Reading mathematics: More than words can say. The Reading Teacher, 56, 786–795.
2.
AdgerC. T.SnowC. E.ChristianD. (2002). Introduction. In AdgerC. T.SnowC. E.ChristianD. (Eds.), What teachers need to know about language (2nd ed., pp. 1–6). McHenry, IL/Washington, DC: Delta Systems/Center for Applied Linguistics.
3.
Aguirre-MunozZ.ParksJ. E.BennerA.AmabiscaA.BoscardinC. K. (2006). Consequences and validity of performance assessment for English language learners: Conceptualizing and developing teachers’ expertise in academic language (CSE Technical Report No. 700). Los Angeles: University of California, National Center for Research on Evaluation, Standards, and Student Testing.
4.
AnstromK.DiCerboP.ButlerF.KatzA.MilletJ.RiveraC. (2010). A review of the literature on academic English: Implications for K-12 English language learners. Arlington, VA: The George Washington University Center for Equity and Excellence in Education.
5.
BacaL.EscamillaK. (2002). Educating teachers about language. In AdgerC. T.SnowC. E.ChristianD. (Eds.), What teachers need to know about language (2nd ed., pp. 71–84). McHenry, IL/Washington, DC: Delta Systems/Center for Applied Linguistics.
6.
BaileyA. L. (2007). The language demands of school: Putting academic English to the test. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press.
7.
BaileyA. L.ButlerF. A. (2002). An evidentiary framework for operationalizing academic language for broad application to K-12 education: A design document (CSE Technical Report No. 611). Los Angeles: University of California, National Center for Research on Evaluation, Standards, and Student Testing.
8.
BaileyA. L.ButlerF. A. (2007). A conceptual framework of academic English language for broad application to education. In BaileyA. L. (Ed.), The language demands of school: Putting academic English to the test (pp. 68–102). New Haven, CT: Yale University Press.
9.
BaileyA. L.ButlerF. A.BorregoM.LaFramentaC.OngC. (2002). Towards the characterization of academic language in upper elementary classrooms. Language Testing Update, 31, 45–52.
10.
BaileyA. L.ButlerF. A.SatoE. (2007). Standards-to-standards linkage under Title III: Exploring common language demands in ELD and science standards. Applied Measurement of Education, 20(1), 53–78.
11.
BaileyA. L.ButlerF. A.StevensR.LordC. (2007). Further specifying the language demands of school. In BaileyA. L. (Ed.), The language demands of school: Putting academic English to the test (pp. 103–156). New Haven, CT: Yale University Press.
12.
BaileyA. L.HeritageH. M. (2008). Formative assessment for literacy, grades K-6: Building reading and academic language skills across the curriculum. Thousand Oaks, CA: Corwin Press.
13.
BaileyA. L.HuangB. H.ShinH. W.FarnsworthT.ButlerF. A. (2006). Developing academic English language proficiency prototypes for 5th grade reading: Psychometric and linguistic profiles of tasks. Los Angeles: University of California, National Center for Research on Evaluation, Standards, and Student Testing.
14.
BaileyF.BurkettB.FreemanD. (2010). The mediating role of language in teaching and learning: A classroom perspective. In SpolskyB.HultF. M. (Eds.), The handbook of educational linguistics (pp. 606–625). West Sussex, England: Blackwell.
15.
BallantyneK. G.SandermanA. R.LevyJ. (2008). Educating English language learners: Building teacher capacity. Washington, DC: National Clearinghouse for English Language Acquisition.
16.
BauerL.NationI. S. P. (1993). Word families. International Journal of Lexicography, 6, 253–279.
17.
BayleyR. (2009, October). Explicit formal instruction in oral language: English language learners. Paper prepared for the Workshop on the Role of Language in School Learning: Implications for Closing the Achievement Gap, Hewlett Foundation, Menlo Park, CA. Retrieved from http://www.nap.edu/catalog.php?record_id=12907
18.
BeckI. L.McKeownM. G.KucanL. (2002). Bringing words to life: Robust vocabulary instruction. New York, NY: Guilford Press.
19.
BloomD.CarterS. P.ChristianB. M.OttoS.Shuart-FarisN. (2004). Discourse analysis and the study of language and literacy events: A microethnographic perspective. Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum.
20.
BrennerM. E. (1998). Development of mathematical communication in problem solving groups by language minority students. Bilingual Research Journal, 22(2–4), 103–128.
21.
BrunaK. R.VannR.EscuderoM. P. (2007). What’s language got to do with it? A case study of academic language instruction in a high school “English learner science” class. Journal of English for Academic Purposes, 6(1), 36–54.
22.
BunchG. C. (2006). “Academic English” in the 7th grade: Broadening the lens, expanding access. Journal of English for Academic Purposes, 5, 284–301.
23.
BunchG. C. (2013). Pedagogical language knowledge: Preparing mainstream teachers for English learners in the new standards era. Review of Research in Education, 37, 298–341.
24.
ButlerF. A.BaileyA. L.StevensR.HuangB.LordC. (2004). Academic English in fifth-grade mathematics, science, and social studies textbooks (Final deliverable to IES, Contract No. R305B960002; CSE Technical Report No. 642). Los Angeles: University of California, National Center for Research on Evaluation, Standards, and Student Testing.
25.
CalderónM. E. (2007). Teaching reading to English language learners, Grades 6–12: A framework for improving achievement in the content areas. Thousand Oaks, CA: Corwin Press.
26.
CalderónM.AugustD.SlavinR.DuranD.MaddenN.CheungA. (2005). Bringing words to life in classrooms with English-language learners. In HiebertE. H.KamilM. L. (Eds.), Teaching and learning vocabulary: Bringing research to practice (pp. 115–136). Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum.
27.
CarrJ.SextonU.LagunoffR. (2007). Making science accessible to English language learners: A guidebook for teachers. San Francisco, CA: West Ed.
28.
Celce-MurciaM. (2002). On the use of selected grammatical features in academic writing. In SchleppegrellM. J.ColombiM. C. (Eds.), Developing advanced literacy in first and second languages: Meaning with power (pp. 143–158). Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum.
29.
ChamotA. U.O’MalleyJ. M. (1994). The CALLA handbook: Implementing the cognitive academic language learning approach. Reading, MA: Addison-Wesley.
30.
ChristieF. (1985). Language and schooling. In TuchudiS. (Ed.), Language, schooling, and society (pp. 21–40). Upper Montclair, NJ: Boynton/Cook.
31.
ChristieF. (2002). The development of abstraction in adolescence in subject English. In SchleppegrellM. J.ColombiM. C. (Eds.), Developing advanced literacy in first and second languages: Meaning with power (pp. 45–66). Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum.
32.
ColombiM. C.SchleppegrellM. J. (2002). Theory and practice in the development of advanced literacy. In SchleppegrellM. J.ColombiM. C. (Eds.), Developing advanced literacy in first and second languages: Meaning with power (pp. 1–19). Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum.
33.
Council of Chief State School Officers. (2012). Framework for English language proficiency development standards corresponding to the Common Core State Standards and the Next Generation Science Standards. Washington, DC: Author.
34.
CoxheadA. (2000). A new academic word list. TESOL Quarterly, 34(2), 213–238.
35.
CumminsJ. (1980). The construct of proficiency in bilingual education. In AlatisJ. E. (Ed.), Georgetown University Round Table on languages and linguistics: Current issues in bilingual education (pp. 81–103). Washington, DC: Georgetown University.
36.
CumminsJ. (1981). The role of primary language development in promoting educational success for language minority students. In California State Department of Education (Ed.), Schooling and language minority students: A theoretical framework (pp. 3–49). Los Angeles, CA: National Dissemination and Assessment Center.
37.
CumminsJ. (1984). Bilingualism and special education: Issues in assessment and pedagogy. Clevedon, England: Multilingual Matters.
38.
CumminsJ. (2000). Language, power, and pedagogy: Bilingual children in the crossfire. Clevedon, England: Multilingual Matters.
39.
CumminsJ. (2011). Literacy engagement: Fueling academic growth for English learners. The Reading Teacher, 65(2), 142–146. doi:10.1002/TRTR.01022
40.
DiCerboP. A.AnstromK. A.RiveraC. (2013). A team approach to the academic language analysis of biology standards and standards-based texts with implications for English language learners. Manuscript submitted for publication.
41.
DoughtyC.VarelaE. (1998). Communicative focus on form. In DoughtyC.WilliamsJ. (Eds.), Focus on form in classroom second language acquisition (pp. 85–113). Cambridge, England: Cambridge University Press.
42.
DutroS.MoranC. (2003). Rethinking English language instruction: An architectural approach. In GarciaG. G. (Ed.), English learners (pp. 227–258). Newark, DE: International Reading Association.
43.
EllisR. (2002). Does form-focused instruction affect the acquisition of implicit knowledge?Studies in Second Language Acquisition, 24, 223–236.
44.
FrancisD. J.RiveraM.LesauxN.KiefferM.RiveraH. (2006). Practical guidelines for the education of English language learners: Research-based recommendations for instruction and academic interventions (No. 2). Portsmouth, NH: Center on Instruction.
45.
GaretM. S.PorterA. C.DesimoneL.BirmanB. F.YoonK. S. (2001). What makes professional development effective? Results from a national sample of teachers. American Educational Research Journal, 38(4), 915–945.
46.
GebhardM.HarmanR.SegerW. (2007). Reclaiming recess: Learning the language of persuasion. Language Arts, 84(5), 419–430.
47.
GeeJ. P. (1996). Social linguistics and literacies: Ideology in discourses (3rd ed.). London, England: Falmer.
48.
GeeJ. P. (2005). Language in the science classroom: Academic social languages as the heart of school-based literacy. In YerrickR.RothW. (Eds.), Establishing scientific classroom discourse communities: Multiple voices of teaching and learning research (pp. 19–37). Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum.
49.
GeeJ. P. (2008). What is academic language? In RoseberyA. S.WarrenB. (Eds.), Teaching science to English language learners: Building on students’ strengths (pp. 57–70). Arlington, VA: National Science Teachers Association.
50.
GraesserC.McNamaraD. S.KulikowichJ. M. (2011). Coh-metrix: Providing multilevel analyses of text characteristics. Educational Researcher, 40(5), 223–234.
51.
GibbonsP. (1998). Classroom talk and the learning of new registers in a second language. Language and Education, 12(2), 99–118.
52.
GibbonsP. (2003). Mediating language learning: Teacher interactions with ESL students in a content-based classroom. TESOL Quarterly, 37(2), 247–273.
53.
GibbonsP. (2008). “It was taught good and I learned a lot”: Intellectual practices and ESL learners in the middle years. Australian Journal of Language and Literacy, 31(2), 155–173.
54.
GuthrieJ. T. (2004). Teaching for literacy engagement. Journal of Literacy Research, 36, 1–30. doi:10.1207/S15548430jlr3601_2
55.
HallidayM. A. K. (1978). Language as semiotic: The social interpretation of language and meaning. Baltimore, MD: University Park Press.
56.
HallidayM. A. K. (1994). An introduction to functional grammar (2nd ed.). London, England: Edward Arnold.
57.
HallidayM. A. K.HassanR. (1985). Language, context and text: Aspects of language in a socio-semiotic perspective. Geelong, Victoria, Australia: Deakin University Press.
58.
HartJ. E.LeeO. (2003). Teacher professional development to improve the science and literacy achievement of English language learners. Bilingual Research Journal, 27(3), 475–501.
59.
HeathS. (1983). Ways with words. Cambridge, England: Cambridge University Press.
60.
KnightS. L.WisemanD. L. (2006). Lessons learned from a research synthesis on the effects of teachers’ professional development on culturally diverse students. In TellezK.WaxmanH. C. (Eds.), Preparing quality educators for English language learners: Research, policy, and practice (pp. 71–98). Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum.
61.
LeeO.DeaktorR.EndersC.LambertJ. (2008). Impact of a multiyear professional development intervention on science achievement of culturally and linguistically diverse elementary students. Journal of Research in Science Teaching, 45(6), 726–747. doi:10.1002/tea.20231
62.
LindsayJ. (2010). Children’s access to print materials and education-related outcomes: Findings from a meta-analytic review. Naperville, IL: Learning Point Associates.
63.
LongM. (1996). The role of the linguistic environment in second language acquisition. In RitchieW. C.BhatiaT. K. (Eds.), Handbook of second language acquisition (pp. 413–468). San Diego, CA: Academic Press.
64.
MacSwanJ.RolstadK. (2003). Linguistic diversity, schooling, and social class: Rethinking our conception of language proficiency in language minority education. In PaulstonC. B.TuckerG. R. (Eds.), Sociolinguistics: The essential readings (pp. 329–340). Oxford, England: Blackwell.
65.
MartinJ. R. (1992). English text: System and structure. Philadelphia, PA: Benjamins.
66.
MerinoB. (2007, Summer). Identifying critical competencies for teachers of English learners. UC LMRI Newsletter, 16(4), 3–7.
67.
MohanB.SlaterT. (2006). Examining the theory/practice relation in a high school science register: A functional linguistic perspective. Journal of English for Academic Purposes, 5, 302–316.
68.
MoschkovichJ. (2002). A situated and sociocultural perspective on bilingual mathematics learners. Mathematical Thinking and Learning, 4(2), 189–212.
69.
NassajiH.FotosS. (2004). Current developments in research on the teaching of grammar. Annual Review of Applied Linguistics, 24, 126–145.
70.
National Research Council. (2010). Language diversity, school learning, and closing achievement gaps: A workshop summary. M. Welch-Ross (Rapporteur). Committee on the Role of Language in School Learning: Implications for Closing the Achievement Gap. Center for Education, Division of Behavioral and Social Sciences and Education. Washington, DC: National Academies Press.
71.
OrtegaL. (2012). Epistemological diversity and moral ends of research in instructed SLA. Language Teaching Research, 16(2), 206–226.
72.
RichardsonV. (2002). Teacher knowledge about language. In AdgerC. T.SnowC. E.ChristianD. (Eds.), What teachers need to know about language (pp. 85–101). McHenry, IL/Washington, DC: Delta Systems/Center for Applied Linguistics.
73.
SatoE.LagunoffR.WorthP. (2008). Language for achievement: A framework for academic English language. San Francisco, CA: WestEd.
74.
SatoE.LagunoffR.YeagleyP. (2011, April). Academic language and the Common Core State Standards: Implications for state and district implementation and supporting the academic achievement of English language learners. Presentation at the annual meeting of the American Educational Research Association, New Orleans, LA.
75.
ScarcellaR. (2003). Academic English: A conceptual framework (Technical Report No. 2003-1). Irvine: University of California Linguistic Minority Research Institute.
76.
ScarcellaR. (2008). Academic language: Clarifying terms. AccELLerate! The Quarterly Newsletter of the National Clearinghouse for English Language Acquisition, 1(1), 5–6.
77.
SchleppegrellM. J. (2001). Linguistic features of the language of schooling. Linguistics and Education, 12(4), 431–459.
78.
SchleppegrellM. J. (2004). The language of schooling. Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum.
79.
SchleppegrellM. J. (2005). Helping content area teachers work with academic language: Promoting English language learners’ literacy in history. Davis: University of California Linguistic Minority Research Institute.
80.
SchleppegrellM. J. (2007). The linguistic challenges of mathematics teaching and learning: A research review. Reading and Writing Quarterly, 23(2), 139–159.
81.
SchleppegrellM. J. (2009, October). Language in academic subject areas and classroom instruction: What is academic language and how can we teach it?Paper prepared for the Workshop on the Role of Language in School Learning: Implications for Closing the Achievement Gap, Hewlett Foundation, Menlo Park, CA. Retrieved from http://www.nap.edu/catalog.php?record_id=12907
82.
SchleppegrellM. J.AchugarM. (2003). Learning language and learning history: A functional linguistics approach. TESOL Journal, 12(2), 21–27. doi:10.1002/j.1949-3533.2003.tb00126.x
83.
SchleppegrellM. J.GreerS.TaylorS. (2008). Literacy in history: Language and meaning. Australian Journal of Language and Literacy, 31(2), 174–187. Retrieved from http://www.alea.edu.au/documents/item/70
84.
ScottJ. A.Jamieson-NoelD.AsselinM. (2003). Vocabulary instruction throughout the day in twenty-three Canadian upper-elementary classrooms. Elementary School Journal, 103(3), 269–286.
85.
ShortD. (1994). Expanding middle school horizons: Integrating language, culture, and social studies. TESOL Quarterly, 28(3), 581–608.
86.
SnowC. E. (1983). Literacy and language: Relationships during the preschool years. Harvard Educational Review, 53, 165–189.
87.
SnowC. E. (2008). What is the vocabulary of science? In RoseberyA. S.WarrenB. (Eds.), Teaching science to English language learners: Building on students’ strengths (pp. 71–83). Arlington, VA: National Science Teachers Association.
88.
SnowC. E.LawrenceJ. F.WhiteC. (2010). Generating knowledge of academic language among urban middle school students. Society for Research on Educational Effectiveness, 2(4), 325–344.
89.
SnowC. E.UccelliP. (2009). The challenge of academic language. In OlsonD. R.TorranceN. (Eds.), The Cambridge handbook of literacy (pp. 112–133). New York, NY: Cambridge University Press.
90.
SnowM. A.MetM.GeneseeF. (1989). A conceptual framework for the integration of language and content instruction. TESOL Quarterly, 23(2), 201–217.
91.
SolomonJ.RhodesN. C. (1995). Conceptualizing academic language. Washington, DC: Center for Applied Linguistics.
92.
StevensR. A.ButlerF. A.Castellon-WellingtonM. (2000). Academic language and content assessment: Measuring the progress of ELLs (CSE Technical Report No. 552). Los Angeles: University of California, National Center for Research on Evaluation, Standards, and Student Testing.
93.
StoddartT.PinalA.LatzkeM.CanadayD. (2002). Integrating inquiry science and language development for English language learners. Journal of Research in Science Teaching, 39(8), 664–687.
94.
TellezK.WaxmanH. (2004). Quality teachers for English language learners: A research synthesis (Publication Series No. 2; No. ED484732). Retrieved from http://files.eric.ed.gov/fulltext/ED484732.pdf
95.
Understanding Language. (2012, April5). Challenges and opportunities for language learning in the context of Common Core State Standards and Next Generation Science Standards. Paper presented at the Understanding Language conference, Stanford University, CA.
96.
UnsworthL. (1999). Developing critical understanding of the specialized language of school science and history texts: A functional grammatical perspective. Journal of Adolescent and Adult Literacy, 42(7), 508–521.
97.
VeelR. (1999). Language, knowledge, and authority in school mathematics. In ChristieF. (Ed.), Pedagogy and the shaping of consciousness: Linguistic and social processes (pp. 185–216). London, England: Cassell.
98.
VerplaetseL. S. (2008). Developing academic language through an abundance of interaction. In VerplaetseL. S.MigliacciN. (Eds.), Inclusive pedagogy for English language learners: A handbook of research-informed practices (pp. 167–180). New York, NY: Lawrence Erlbaum.
99.
WalkerC. L.RanneyS.FortuneT. W. (2005). Preparing preservice teachers for English language learners: A content-based approach. In TedickD. J. (Ed.), Second language teacher education: International perspectives (pp. 313–333). Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum.
100.
Wong FillmoreL.SnowC. (2000). What teachers need to know about language. Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Education, Office of Educational Research and Improvement.
101.
ZwiersJ. (2006). Integrating academic language, thinking, and content: Learning scaffolds for non-native speakers in the middle grades. Journal of English for Academic Purposes, 5(4), 317–332.
102.
ZwiersJ. (2007). Teacher practices and perspectives for developing academic language. International Journal of Applied Linguistics, 17(1), 93–116.
103.
ZwiersJ. (2008). Building academic language: Essential practices for content classrooms (pp. 19–39). San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass.
