Fifteenth Annual AERA Brown Lecture in Education Research: Disrupting Punitive Practices and Policies: Rac(e)ing Back to Teaching,Teacher Preparation,and Brown
Restricted accessResearch articleFirst published online April, 2020
Fifteenth Annual AERA Brown Lecture in Education Research: Disrupting Punitive Practices and Policies: Rac(e)ing Back to Teaching,Teacher Preparation,and Brown
Mr. Williams, a student during segregation and educator who began his career in the years following the 1954 Brown v. Board of Education decision, sheds light on why Black students succeeded in all-Black schools as well as challenges faced in advancing racial justice. In his context, according to Mr. Williams, Black students succeeded because of the influence of Black teachers and the discipline that was cultivated among teachers and students. However, discipline was conceptualized and practiced in a developmentally supportive manner for students during segregation while it is practiced as a form of exclusion in schools currently. Milner argues that we should change our language of disciplinary practices to punishment practices to more accurately capture current practices. In addition, Milner introduces curriculum punishment as a tool to describe how students are punished when they are not exposed to potentially transformative, racially just learning opportunities that can result in vicarious trauma. Implications for teacher education are discussed.
AlridgeD. P. (2003). The dilemmas, challenges, and duality of an African-American educational historian. Educational Researcher, 32(9), 25–34.
2.
AlvarezA. J. (2017). “Seeing their eyes through the rearview mirror”: Identifying and responding to students’ challenging experiences. Equity and Excellence in Education, 50(1), 53–67.
3.
AlvarezA. J.MilnerH. R. (2018). Exploring teachers’ beliefs and feelings about race and police violence. Teaching Education, 29(4), 383–394.
AndersonJ. D. (1988). The education of Blacks in the South. University of North Carolina Press.
6.
BallA. F. (2009). Toward a theory of generative change in culturally and linguistically complex classrooms. American Educational Research Journal, 46(1), 45–72.
7.
BallA. F.TysonC. A. (Eds.). (2011). Studying diversity in teacher education. Rowman & Littlefield.
8.
BanksJ. A. (1991). Multicultural literacy and curriculum reform. Educational Horizons, 69(3), 135–140.
9.
BanksJ. A. (2016). Cultural diversity and education: Foundations, curriculum and teaching (6th ed.). Routledge.
10.
BellD. (2004). Silent covenants: Brown v. Board of Education and the unfulfilled hopes for racial reform. Oxford University Press.
11.
BennettJ. S.DriverM. K.TrentS. C. (2017). Real or ideal? A narrative literature review addressing White privilege in teacher education. Urban Education. Retrieved from https://doi.org/10.1177/0042085917690205
12.
BermanG.ParadiesY. (2010). Racism, disadvantage and multiculturalism: Towards effective anti-racist praxis. Ethnic and Racial Studies, 33(2), 214–232.
13.
BoutteG. S. (2016). Educating African American students: And how are the children?Routledge.
14.
Brown v. Board of Education, 347 U.S. 483 (1954).
15.
CareyR. L. (2014). A cultural analysis of the achievement gap “discourse”: Challenging the language and labels used in the work of school reform. Urban Education, 49(4), 440–468.
16.
CarterP. L.WelnerK. G. (Eds.). (2013). Closing the opportunity gap: What America must do to give every child an even chance. Oxford University Press.
17.
CarterR. T. (2007). Racism and psychological and emotional injury: Recognizing and assessing race-based traumatic stress. Counseling Psychologist, 35(1), 13–105.
18.
ChavousT. M.BernatD.Schmeelk-ConeK.CaldwellC.Kohn-WoodL. P.ZimmermanM. (2003). Racial identity and academic attainment among African American adolescents. Child Development, 74(4), 1076–1090.
19.
Cochran-SmithM. (1995). Color blindness and basket making are not the answers: Confronting the dilemmas of race, culture, and language diversity in teacher education. American Educational Research Journal, 32(3), 493–522.
20.
Darling-HammondL. (2010). The flat world and education: How America’s commitment to equity will determine our future. Teachers College Press.
21.
DavisJ. E.JordanW. J. (1994). The effects of school context, structure, and experiences on African American males in middle and high school. Journal of Negro Education, 63(4), 570–587.
22.
Delale-O’ConnorL.GrahamD. (2019). Teachers’ talk about race and caregiver support: “You can NEVER be too sure about parents.”Urban Education, 54(4), 499–534.
23.
DenzinN. K.LincolnY. S. (Eds.). (2011). The Sage handbook of qualitative research. SAGE Publications.
24.
DillardC. B. (2002). Walking ourselves back home: The education of teachers with/in the world. Journal of Teacher Education, 53(5), 383–392.
25.
Duncan-AndradeJ. (2016, October). Note to educators: Hope required when growing roses in concrete. Lecture at the School of Education’s Center for Urban Education at the University of Pittsburgh, PA.
26.
Easton-BrooksD. (2019). Ethnic matching: Academic success of students of color. Rowman & Littlefield.
27.
EisnerE. W. (1994). The educational imagination: On the design and evaluation of school programs. MacMillan College Publishing Company.
28.
EmdinC. (2016). For White folks who teach in the hood…and the rest of y’all too: Reality pedagogy and urban education. Beacon.
29.
EthridgeS. (1979). Impact of the 1954 Brown v. Topeka Board of Education decision on Black educators. Negro Educational Review, 30(4), 217–232.
30.
Farinde-WuA. (2018). #Blackwomenatwork: Teaching and retention in urban schools. Urban Review, 50(2), 247–266.
FergusE. (2017). “Because I’m light skin. . .they think I’m Italian”: Mexican students’ experiences of racialization in predominantly White schools. Urban Education, 52(4), 460–490.
33.
FosterM. (1990). The politics of race: Through the eyes of African-American teachers. Journal of Education, 172, 123–141.
34.
FosterM. (1993). Othermothers: Exploring the educational philosophy of Black American woman teachers. In ArnotM.WeilerK. (Eds.), Feminism and social justice in education: International perspectives (pp. 101–123). Falmer Press.
35.
FosterM. (1997). Black teachers on teaching. New York: New Press.
36.
FoucaultM. (1975). Discipline and punish: The birth of the prison. Vintage.
37.
GayG. (2010). Culturally responsive teaching: Theory, research, and practice. Teachers College Press.
38.
GoodenM. A.O’DohertyA. (2014). Do you see what I see? Fostering aspiring leaders’ racial awareness. Urban Education, 50(2), 225–255.
39.
GreenT. L. (2015). Places of inequality, places of possibility: Mapping “opportunity in geography” across urban school-communities. Urban Review, 47(4), 717–741.
40.
GregoryA.SkibaR. J.NogueraP. A. (2010). The achievement gap and the discipline gap: Two sides of the same coin?Educational Researcher, 39(1), 59–68.
41.
GutiérrezK. D.Baquedano-LopezP.TejedaC. (1999). Rethinking diversity: Hybridity and hybrid language practices in the “third space.”Mind, Culture, and Activity, 6(4), 286–303.
HarperS.DonnorJ. K. (Eds.). (2017). Scandals in college sports. Routledge.
44.
HarrisC. I. (1993). Whiteness as property. Harvard Law Review, 106(8), 1707–1791.
45.
HolmesB. J. (1990). New strategies are needed to produce minority teachers. In DormanA. (Ed.), Recruiting and retaining minority teachers [Guest Commentary] (Policy Brief No. 8). North Central Regional Educational Laboratory.
46.
HowardT. C. (2001). Telling their side of the story: African American students’ perceptions of culturally relevant pedagogy. Urban Review, 33(2), 131–149.
47.
HowardT. C. (2010). Why race and culture matter in schools: Closing the achievement gap in America’s classrooms (Vol. 39). Teachers College Press.
48.
HudsonM. J.HolmesB. J. (1994). Missing teachers, impaired communities: The unanticipated consequences of Brown v. Board of Education on the African American teaching force at the precollegiate level. Journal of Negro Education, 63(3), 388–393.
49.
IrvineJ. J. (1990). Black students and school failure. Policies, practices, and prescriptions. Greenwood Press.
50.
IrvineJ. J. (2010). Foreword. In Milner’sH. R. (Ed.), Culture, curriculum, and identity in education. Palgrave Macmillan.
51.
IrvineJ. J.IrvineR. W. (2007). The impact of the desegregation process on the education of Black students: A retrospective analysis. Journal of Negro Education, 76(3), 297–305.
52.
IrvineR. W.IrvineJ. J. (1983). The impact of the desegregation process on the education of Black students: Key variables. Journal of Negro Education, 52, 410–422.
53.
JohnsonL. (2002). “My eyes have been opened”: White teachers and racial awareness. Journal of Teacher Education, 53(2), 153–167.
54.
KingJ. E. (1991). Dysconscious racism: Ideology, identity, and the miseducation of teachers. Journal of Negro Education, 60(2), 133–146.
55.
KingS. H. (1993). The limited presence of African-American teachers. Review of Educational Research, 63(2), 115–149.
56.
Ladson-BillingsG. (2004). Landing on the wrong note: The price we paid forBrown. Educational Researcher, 33(7), 3–13.
57.
Ladson-BillingsG. (2009). Dreamkeepers: Successful teachers of African American children. Jossey-Bass.
58.
LaughterJ. (2018). Race in educational researcher. Educational Researcher, 47(4), 259–261.
59.
LeeC. D. (2007). Culture, literacy, and learning: Taking bloom in the midst of the whirlwind. Teachers College Press.
LoveB. (2019). We want to do more than survive: Abolitionist teaching and the pursuit of educational freedom. Boston: Beacon.
62.
LynnM.DixsonA. (Eds.). (2013). The handbook of critical race theory in education. Routledge.
63.
MaxwellJ. A. (2012). Qualitative research design: An interactive approach (Vol. 41). SAGE Publications.
64.
McCutcheonG. (2002). Developing the curriculum: Solo and group deliberation. Educators’ Press International.
65.
McGeeE.AlvarezA. J.MilnerH. R. (2016). Colorism as a salient space of race in the preparation of teachers. Theory Into Practice, 55(1), 69–79.
66.
McGeeE.SpencerM. B. (2012). Theoretical analysis of resilience and identity: An African American engineer’s life story. In Dixon-RománE.GordonE. W. (Eds.), Thinking comprehensively about education: Spaces of educative possibility and their implications for public policy (pp. 161–178). Routledge.
67.
MeierK. J.StewartJ.EnglandR. E. (1989). Race, class, and education: The politics of second generation discrimination. University of Wisconsin Press.
68.
MensahF. (2019). Finding voice and passion: Critical race theory methodology in science teacher education. American Educational Research Journal, 56(4), 1412–1456. Retrieved from https://doi.org/10.3102/0002831218818093
69.
MilnerH. R. (2005). Developing a multicultural curriculum in a predominantly White teaching context: Lessons from an African American teacher in a suburban English classroom. Curriculum Inquiry, 35(4), 391–427.
70.
MilnerH. R. (2006). The promise of Black teachers’ success with Black students. Educational Foundations, 20(3–4), 89–104.
71.
MilnerH. R. (2007). Race, culture, and researcher positionality: Working through dangers seen, unseen, and unforeseen. Educational Researcher, 36(7), 388–400.
72.
MilnerH. R. (2008). Disrupting deficit notions of difference: Counter-narratives of teachers and community in urban education. Teaching and Teacher Education, 24(6), 1573–1598.
73.
MilnerH. R. (2011). Culturally relevant pedagogy in a diverse urban classroom. Urban Review, 43(1), 66–89.
74.
MilnerH. R. (2012). Beyond a test score: Explaining opportunity gaps in educational practice. Journal of Black Studies, 43(6), 693–718.
75.
MilnerH. R. (2015). Rac(e)ing to class: Confronting poverty and race in schools and classrooms. Harvard Education Press.
76.
MilnerH. R. (2016). A Black male teacher’s culturally responsive practices. Journal of Negro Education, 85(4), 417–432.
77.
MilnerH. R. (2017). Race, talk, opportunity gaps, and curriculum shifts in (teacher) education. Literacy Research: Theory, Method, and Practice, 66(1), 73–94.
78.
MilnerH. R. (2020). Start where you are but don’t stay there: Understanding diversity, opportunity gaps, and teaching in today’s classrooms (Second Edition). Harvard Education Press.
79.
MilnerH. R.CunninghamH. B.Delale-O’ConnorL.KestenbergE. G. (2018). “These kids are out of control”: Why we must reimagine “classroom management” for equity. Corwin.
MilnerH. R.Delale-O’ConnorL.MurrayI. E.FarindeA. (2016). Reflections on Brown to understand Milliken v. Bradley: What if we are focusing on the wrong policy questions?Teachers College Record, 118(3), 1–32.
82.
MilnerH. R.HowardT.C. (2004). Black teachers, Black students, Black communities and Brown: Perspectives and insights from experts. Journal of Negro Education, 73(3), 285–297.
83.
MilnerH. R.LometyK. (2014). Handbook of Urban Education. Routledge.
84.
MonroeC. R. (2013). Coloring educational research: African American life and schooling as an exemplar. Educational Researcher, 42, 9–19.
85.
MorrisJ. E.MonroeC. R. (2009). Why study the U.S. South? The nexus of race and place in investigating Black student achievement. Educational Researcher, 38, 21–36.
NogueraP. A. (2003). Schools, prisons, and social implications of punishment: Rethinking disciplinary practices. Theory Into Practice, 42(4), 341–350.
88.
PabonA. (2016). Waiting for Black superman: A look at a problematic assumption. Urban Education, 51(8), 915–939.
89.
PearmanF. A. (2020). Gentrification, geography, and the declining enrollment of neighborhood schools.Urban Education, 55(2), 183–215.
90.
ScheurichJ. J.YoungM. D. (1997). Coloring epistemologies: Are our research epistemologies racially biased?Educational Researcher, 26(4), 4–16.
91.
Sealey-RuizY. (2016). Why Black girls’ literacies matter: New literacies for a new era. English Education, 48(4), 290–298.
92.
ShujaaM. J. (Ed.). (1994). Too much schooling, too little education: A paradox of Black life in White societies. Africa World Press.
93.
Siddle WalkerV. (1996). Their highest potential: An African American school community in the segregated South. University of North Carolina Press.
94.
Siddle WalkerV. (2000). Valued segregated schools for African American children in the South, 1935-1969: A review of common themes and characteristics. Review of Educational Research, 70(3), 253–285.
95.
Siddle WalkerV. (2013). Ninth annual Brown lecture in education research: Black educators as educational advocates in the decades before Brown v. Board of Education. Educational Researcher, 42(4), 207–222.
96.
SingerJ. N. (2016). African American male college athletes’ narratives on education and racism. Urban Education, 51(9), 1065–1095.
97.
SkibaR. J.MichaelR. S.NardoA. C.PetersonR. L. (2002). The color of discipline: Sources of racial and gender disproportionality in school punishment. Urban Review, 34(4), 317–342.
98.
SkibaR. J.PetersonR. L.WilliamsT. (1997). Office referrals and suspension: Disciplinary intervention in middle schools. Education and Treatment of Children, 20, 295–315.
99.
SleeterC. E. (2008). Preparing White teachers for diverse students. In Cochran-SmithM.Feiman-NemserS.McIntyreJ. (Eds.), Handbook of research in teacher education: Enduring issues in changing contexts (3rd ed., pp. 559–582). Routledge.
100.
SleeterC. E.MilnerH. R. (2011). Researching successful efforts in teacher education to diversify teachers. In BallA. F.TysonC. (Eds.), Studying diversity in teacher education (pp. 81–103). Rowman & Littlefield.
101.
TateW. F. (1994). From inner city to ivory tower: Does my voice matter in the academy?Urban Education, 29(3), 245–269.
102.
TateW. F. (2008). “Geography of opportunity”: Poverty, place, and educational outcomes. Educational Researcher, 37(7), 397–411.
103.
TillmanL. C. (2004). (Un)Intended consequences? The impact of Brown v. Board of Education decision on the employment status of Black educators. Education and Urban Society, 36(3), 280–303.
WarrenC. A. (2013). The utility of empathy for White female teachers’ culturally responsive interactions with Black male students. Interdisciplinary Journal of Teaching and Learning, 3(3), 175–200.
109.
WelshR. O.LittleS. (2018). The school discipline dilemma: A comprehensive review of disparities and alternative approaches. Review of Educational Research, 88(5), 752–794.
110.
WilliamsS. M. (2018). African American education in rural communities in the deep South: “Making the impossible possible.” In McShaneM.SmarickA. (Eds.), No longer forgotten: The triumphs and struggles of rural education in America (pp. 29–44). Rowman & Littlefield.
111.
WoodsonA. N. (2018). Racial code words, re-memberings and Black kids’ civic imaginations: A critical race ethnography of a post-civil rights leader. Anthropology & Education Quarterly, 50(1), 26–47. doi.org/10.1111/aeq.12277
ZeichnerK. M. (2003). The adequacies and inadequacies of three current strategies to recruit, prepare, and retain the best teachers for all students. Teachers College Record, 105(3), 490–519.
