Positive perceptions of school climate correlate with many dimensions of academic well-being and student health. Unfortunately, some existing research finds more favorable perceptions in middle school for general education students (GENs) than for students with disabilities (SWDs). Given the importance of ninth grade to student success, it is important to know if perceptions improve when students go to high school, if they improve more for GENs than SWDs, and if they are mediated by school characteristics. Our analysis of rich student-level longitudinal data suggests that students perceive improvements in school climate when they transition to high school, school characteristics do mediate perceptions, and perceptions of GENs improve more (or decline less) than those of SWDs, resulting in gaps favoring GENs.
American Educational Research Association. (2013). Prevention of bullying in schools, colleges, and universities: Research report and recommendations. Author.
2.
AndermanL. H. (2003). Academic and social perceptions as predictors of change in middle school students’ sense of school belonging. Journal of Experimental Education, 72(1), 5–22.
3.
AstorB.BenbenishtyR. (2018). Bullying, school violence, and climate in evolving contexts: Culture, organization, and time. Oxford University Press.
4.
AtteberryA.WedowR.CookN. J.McEachinA. (2021). A replication of a quasi-experimental approach to estimating middle school structural transition effects on student learning trajectories. Educational Policy, 1–40. doi:10.1177/0895904820987797
5.
BarberB. K.OlsenJ. A. (2004). Assessing the transitions to middle and high school. Journal of Adolescent Research, 19(1), 3–30.
6.
BarrowL.SartainL.De la TorreM. (2020). Increasing access to selective high schools through place-based affirmative action: Unintended consequences. American Economic Journal: Applied Economics, 12(4), 135–163.
7.
BasileK. C.ClaytonH. B.DeGueS.GilfordJ. W.VagiK. J.SuarezN. A.LowryR. (2020). Interpersonal violence victimization among high school students—Youth risk behavior survey, United States, 2019. MMWR Supplements, 69(1), 28.
8.
BennerA. D. (2011). The transition to high school: Current knowledge, future directions. Educational Psychology Review, 23, 299–328.
9.
BennerA. D.GrahamS. (2007). Navigating the transition to multi-ethnic urban high schools: Changing ethnic congruence and adolescents’ school-related affect. Journal of Research on Adolescence, 17(1), 207–220.
10.
BennerA. D.GrahamS. (2009). The transition to high school as a developmental process among multiethnic urban youth. Child Development, 80, 356–376.
11.
BondL.ButlerH.ThomasL.CarlinJ.GloverS.BowesG.PattonG. (2007). Social and school connectedness in early secondary school as predictors of late teenage substance use, mental health, and academic outcomes. Journal of Adolescent Health, 40(4), 357-e9.
12.
BradshawC. P.WaasdorpT. EDebnamK.J.JohnsonS. L. (2014). Measuring school climate in high schools: A focus on safety, engagement, and the environment. Journal of School Health, 84(9), 593–604.
13.
CoelhoV. A.RomãoA. M.BrásP.BearG.PriosteA. (2020). Trajectories of students’ school climate dimensions throughout middle school transition: A longitudinal study. Child Indicators, 13, 175–192.
14.
CohenJ.McCabeL.MichelliN. M.PickeralT. (2009). School climate: Research, policy, practice, and teacher education. Teachers College Record, 111(1), 180–213.
15.
CorreiaS. (2017). Linear models with high-dimensional fixed effects: An efficient and feasible estimator. Unpublished manuscript. http://scorreia.com/research/hdfe.pdf
16.
DailyS. M.MannM. J.LillyC. L.DyerA. M.SmithM. LKristjanssonA. L. (2020). School climate as an intervention to reduce academic failure and educate the whole child: A longitudinal study. Journal of School Health, 90(3), 182–193.
17.
DavisR.WarnerN. (2018). Schools matter: The positive relationship between New York City high schools’ student academic progress and school climate. Urban Education, 53(8), 959–980.
18.
DeVriesJ. M.VoßS.GebhardtM. (2018). Do learners with special education needs really feel included? Evidence from the Perception of Inclusion Questionnaire and Strengths and Difficulties Questionnaire. Research in Developmental Disabilities, 83, 28–36.
19.
ElderG. H.Jr.JohnsonM. K.CrosnoeR. (2003). The emergence and development of life course theory. In MortimerJ. T.ShanahanM. J., (Eds.), Handbook of life course. Springer and Kluwer.
20.
EspelageD. (2015). Data needs for emerging research issues in bully and violence prevention: Strengths and limitations of the National Center for Educational Statistics data sets. AERA Open, 1(3), 1–7.
21.
GageN. A.KramerD. A.EllisK. (2020). High school students with emotional and behavioral disorders perceptions of school climate. Journal of Disability Policy Studies, 1044207320934800.
22.
GageN. A.LarsonA.SugaiG.ChafouleasS. M. (2016). Student perceptions of school climate as predictors of office discipline referrals. American Educational Research Journal, 53(3), 492–515.
23.
GilM.da CostaJ. (2010). Students with disabilities in mainstream schools: District level perspectives on anti-bullying policy and practice within schools. International Journal of Special Education, 25(2), 148–161.
24.
HamlinD. (2020). Can a positive school climate promote student attendance? Evidence from New York City. American Educational Research Journal, 0002831220924037.
25.
HogeD. R.SmitE. K.HansonS. L. (1990). School experiences predicting changes in self-esteem of sixth-and seventh-grade students. Journal of Educational Psychology, 82(1), 117.
26.
HopsonL. M.LeeE. (2011). Mitigating the effect of family poverty on academic and behavioral outcomes: The role of school climate in middle and high school. Children and Youth Services Review, 33(11), 2221–2229.
27.
KerrK. (2003). Rethinking the ninth grade: An exploratory investigation of school organization during the transition to high school [Unpublished doctoral dissertation]. Johns Hopkins University.
28.
KupermincG. P.LeadbeaterB. J.BlattS. J. (2001). School social climate and individual differences in vulnerability to psychopathology among middle school students. Journal of School Psychology, 39(2), 141–159.
29.
LeVasseurM. T.KelvinE. A.GrosskopfN. A. (2013). Intersecting identities and the association between bullying and suicide attempts among New York city youths: Results from the 2009 New York City Youth Risk Behavior Survey. American Journal of Public Health, 103(6), 1082–1089.
30.
MaagJ. W.KatsiyannisA. (2012). Bullying and students with disabilities: Legal and practice considerations. Behavioral Disorders, 37(2), 78–86.
31.
McCallumoreK. M.SparapaniE. R. (2010). The importance of the ninth grade on high school graduation rates and student success. Education Digest: Essential Readings Condensed for Quick Review, 76(2), 60–64.
32.
MessiasE.KindrickK.CastroJ. (2014). School bullying, cyberbullying, or both: Correlates of teen suicidality in the 2011 CDC youth risk behavior survey. Comprehensive Psychiatry, 55(5), 1063–1068.
33.
MusuL.ZhangA.WangK.ZhangJ.OudekerkB. (2019). Indicators of school crime and safety: 2018. National Assessment of IDEA Overview (NCEE 2011-4026). Evaluation and Regional Assistance, Institute of Education Sciences, U.S. Department of Education. National Center for Education Statistics.
National Center for Education Statistics. (2019b). Public high school 4-year adjusted cohort graduation rate (ACGR), by selected student characteristics and state: 2010-11 through 2018-19. In Digest of education statistics 2020 (chap. 2). https://nces.ed.gov/programs/digest/d20/tables/dt20_219.46.asp.
36.
National Center for Education Statistics. (2021). Students with disabilities. Condition of education. U.S. Department of Education, Institute of Education Sciences. https://nces.ed.gov/programs/coe/indicator/cgg
NeildR. C.Stoner-EbyS.FurstenbergF. (2008). Connecting entrance and departure: The transition to ninth grade and high school dropout. Education and Urban Society, 40(5), 543–569.
39.
NichollsJ. (1990). What is ability and why are we mindful of it? A developmental perspective. In SternbergR.KolligianJ. (Eds.), Competence considered (pp. 11–40). Yale University Press.
40.
O’MalleyM.VoightA.RenshawT. L.EklundK. (2015). School climate, family structure, and academic achievement: A study of moderation effects. School Psychology Quarterly, 30(1), 142.
41.
PerlusJ. G.Brooks-RussellA.WangJ.IannottiR. J. (2014). Trends in bullying, physical fighting, and weapon carrying among 6th-through 10th-grade students from 1998 to 2010: Findings from a national study. American Journal of Public Health, 104(6), 1100–1106.
42.
RiehlC.PallasA.NatrielloG. (1999). Rites and wrongs: Institutional explanations for the student course-scheduling process in urban high schools. American Journal of Education, 107(2), 116–154.
43.
ResnickM. D.BearmanP. S.BlumR. W.BaumanK. E.HarrisK. M.JonesJ.TaborJ.BeuhringT.SievingR. E.ShewM.IrelandM.BearingerL. H.UdryR. (1997). Protecting adolescents from harm: findings from the National Longitudinal Study on Adolescent Health. Jama, 278(10), 823–832.
44.
RockoffJ. E.LockwoodB. B. (2011). Stuck in the middle: Impacts of grade configuration in public schools. Journal of Public Economics, 94(11–12), 1051–1061.
45.
RoderickM.Kelley-KempleT. (with Johnson, D. W., & Ryan, S.). (2021). The preventable failure. University of Chicago Consortium on Chicago School Research.
46.
RoseC. A.EspelageD. L.Monda-AmayaL. E. (2009). Bullying and victimisation rates among students in general and special education: A comparative analysis. Educational Psychology, 29(7), 761–776.
47.
RybergR.HerS.TemkinD.MadillR.KelleyC.ThompsonJ.GabrielA. (2020). Measuring school climate: Validating the Education Department School Climate Survey in a sample of urban middle and high school students. AERA Open, 6(3), 2332858420948024.
48.
SalleT. L.GeorgeH. P.McCoachD. B.PolkT.EvanovichL. L. (2018). An examination of school climate, victimization, and mental health problems among middle school students self-identifying with emotional and behavioral disorders. Behavioral disorders, 43(3), 383–392.
49.
SandersS. MDurbinJ. M.AndersonB. G.FogartyL. M.Giraldo-GarciaR. J.VoightA. (2018). Does a rising school climate lift all boats? Differential associations of perceived climate and achievement for students with disabilities and limited English proficiency. School Psychology International, 39(6), 646–662.
50.
SchillerK. (1999). Effects of feeder patterns on students’ transition to high school. Sociology of Education, 72(4), 216–233.
51.
SchwartzA. E.StiefelL.RubensteinR.ZabelJ. (2011). The path not taken: How does school organization affect 8th grade achievement?Educational Evaluation and Policy Analysis, 33(3), 293–317.
52.
SchwartzA. E.StiefelL.WiswallM. (2016). All schools are not created equal: Difference in learning environment in small and large high schools. Economics of Education Review, 52, 272–290.
53.
SeamanS. R.WhiteI. R. (2013). Review of inverse probability weighting for dealing with missing data. Statistical Methods in Medical Research, 22(3), 278–295.
54.
ShogrenK. A.KennedyW.DowsettC.LittleT. D. (2014). Autonomy, psychological empowerment, and self-realization: Exploring data on self-determination from NLTS2. Exceptional Children, 80(2), 221–235.
55.
StiefelLShiferawM.SchwartzA. E.GottfriedM. (2018). Who feels included in school? Examining feelings of inclusion among students with disabilities. Educational Researcher, 47(2), 105–120.
56.
ThapaA.CohenJ.GuffeyS.Higgins-D’AlessandroA. (2013). A review of school climate research. Review of Educational Research, 83(3), 357–385.
57.
VoightA.AustinG.HansonT. (2013). A climate for academic success: How school climate distinguishes schools that are beating the achievement odds. Full report. California Comprehensive Center at WestEd.
58.
WangM. T.DegolJ. L. (2016). School climate: A review of the construct, measurement, and impact on student outcomes. Educational Psychology Review, 28(2), 315–352.
59.
WeixlerL. B.HarrisD. N.GerryA. (2020). Voices of New Orleans youth: What do the city’s young people think about their schools and communities. Education Research Alliance for New Orleans.
60.
WhitneyI.SmithP. K.ThompsonD. (1994). Bullying and children with special educational needs. In SmithP. K.SharpS. (Eds.), School bullying: Insights and perspectives (pp. 213–240). Routledge.
61.
WigfieldA.EcclesJ. S.FredricksJ. A.SimpkinsS.RoeserR. W.SchiefeleU. (2015). Development of achievement motivation and engagement. In LernerR. M.Garcia CollC.LambM. (Eds.), Handbook of child psychology and developmental science (pp. 1–44). John Wiley & Sons.
62.
WooldridgeJ. M. (2002). Inverse probability weighted M-estimators for sample selection, attrition, and stratification. Portuguese Economic Journal, 1(12), 117–139.
Supplementary Material
Please find the following supplemental material available below.
For Open Access articles published under a Creative Commons License, all supplemental material carries the same license as the article it is associated with.
For non-Open Access articles published, all supplemental material carries a non-exclusive license, and permission requests for re-use of supplemental material or any part of supplemental material shall be sent directly to the copyright owner as specified in the copyright notice associated with the article.
