Student turnover has many negative consequences for students and schools, and the high mobility rates of disadvantaged students may exacerbate inequality. Scholars have advised schools to reduce mobility by building and improving relationships with and among families, but such efforts are rarely tested rigorously. A cluster-randomized field experiment in 52 predominantly Hispanic elementary schools in San Antonio, Texas, and Phoenix, Arizona, tested whether student mobility in early elementary school was reduced through Families and Schools Together (FAST), an intervention that builds social capital among families, children, and schools. FAST failed to reduce mobility overall but substantially reduced the mobility of Black students, who were especially likely to change schools. Improved relationships among families help explain this finding.
AlexanderK. L.EntwisleD. R.DauberS. L. (1996). Children in motion: School transfers and elementary school performance. Journal of Educational Research, 90(1), 3–12. doi:10.1080/00220671.1996.9944438
2.
AllisonP. D. (1999). Comparing logit and probit coefficients across groups. Sociological Methods & Research, 28(2), 186–208. doi:10.1177/0049124199028002003
3.
AshbyC. M. (2010). Many challenges arise in educating students who change schools frequently (GAO-11-40). Washington, DC: U.S. Government Accountability Office. Retrieved from http://www.gao.gov
4.
BronfenbrennerU.1979. The ecology of human development: Experiments by nature and design. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.
5.
BurkamD. T.LeeV. E.DwyerJ. (2009). School mobility in the early elementary grades: Frequency and impact from nationally-representative data. Retrieved from http://pop.visionforchildren.org
6.
ClotfelterC. T. (2001). Are Whites still fleeing? Racial patterns and enrollment shifts in urban public schools, 1987–1996. Journal of Policy Analysis and Management, 20(2), 199–221. doi:10.1002/pam.2022
7.
ColemanJ. S. (1988). Social capital in the creation of human capital. American Journal of Sociology, 94, S95–S120.
8.
DawkinsC. J. (2006). Are social networks the ties that bind families to neighborhoods?Housing Studies, 21(6), 867–881. doi:10.1080/02673030600917776
9.
DunstC. J.TrivetteC. M.DealA. G.1988. Enabling and empowering families: Principles and guidelines for practice. Cambridge, MA: Brookline Books.
10.
FairlieR. W. (2002). Private schools and “Latino flight” from Black schoolchildren. Demography, 39(4), 655–674. doi:10.1353/dem.2002.0035
11.
FantuzzoJ. W.LeBoeufW. A.ChenC.RouseH. L.CulhaneD. P. (2012). The unique and combined effects of homelessness and school mobility on the educational outcomes of young children. Educational Researcher, 41(9), 393–402. doi:10.3102/0013189X12468210
12.
FlemingC. B.HarachiT. W.CatalanoR. F.HaggertyK. P.AbbottR. D. (2001). Assessing the effects of a school-based intervention on unscheduled school transfers during elementary school. Evaluation Review25(6), 655–679. doi:10.1177/0193841X0102500604
13.
FongA. B.BaeS.HuangM. (2010). Patterns of student mobility among English Language Learner students in Arizona public schools (Issues & Answers Report, REL 2010-No. 093). Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Education, Institute of Education Sciences, National Center for Education Evaluation and Regional Assistance, Regional Educational Laboratory West. Retrieved from http://ies.ed.gov/ncee/edlabs
14.
GamoranA.TurleyR. N. L.TurnerA.FishR. (2012). Differences between Hispanic and non-Hispanic families in social capital and child development: First-year findings from an experimental study. Research in Social Stratification and Mobility, 30(1), 97–112. doi:10.1016/j.rssm.2011.08.001
15.
GarciaD. R. (2008). The impact of school choice on racial segregation in charter schools. Educational Policy, 22(6), 805–829. doi:10.1177/0895904807310043
16.
GasperJ.DeLucaS.EstacionA. (2010). Coming and going: Explaining the effects of residential and school mobility on adolescent delinquency. Social Science Research, 39(3), 459–476. doi:10.1016/j.ssresearch.2009.08.009
17.
GasperJ.DeLucaS.EstacionA. (2012). Switching schools: Revisiting the relationship between school mobility and high school dropout. American Educational Research Journal, 49(3), 487–519. doi:10.3102/0002831211415250
18.
GradyS.BielickS.AudS. (2010). Trends in the use of school choice: 1993 to 2007 (NCES 2010-004). Washington, DC: National Center for Education Statistics, Institute of Education Sciences, US Department of Education. Retrieved from http://nces.ed.gov
19.
GriggJ. (2012). School enrollment changes and student achievement growth: A case study in educational disruption and continuity. Sociology of Education, 85(4), 388–404. doi:10.1177/0038040712441374
20.
HanushekE. A.KainJ. F.RivkinS. G. (2004). Disruption versus Tiebout improvement: The costs and benefits of switching schools. Journal of Public Economics, 88(9), 1721–1746. doi:10.1016/S0047-2727(03)00063-X
21.
HaynieD. L.SouthS. J. (2005). Residential mobility and adolescent violence. Social Forces, 84(1), 361–374. doi:10.1353/sof.2005.0104
22.
HaynieD. L.SouthS. J.BoseS. (2006a). The company you keep: Adolescent mobility and peer behavior. Sociological Inquiry, 76(3), 397–426. doi:10.1111/j.1475-682X.2006.00161.x
23.
HaynieD. L.SouthS. J.BoseS. (2006b). Residential mobility and attempted suicide among adolescents: An individual-level analysis. Sociological Quarterly, 47(4), 693–721. doi:10.1111/j.1533-8525.2006.00063.x
24.
IrwinM.BlanchardT.TolbertC.NucciA.LysonT. (2004). Why people stay: The impact of community context on nonmigration in the USA. Population (English edition), 59(5), 567–592. doi:10.3917/pope.405.0567
25.
JencksC.PhillipsM. (Eds.). (1998). The Black-White test score gap. Washington, DC: Brookings Institution Press.
26.
KanK. (2007). Residential mobility and social capital. Journal of Urban Economics, 61(3), 436–457. doi:10.1016/j.jue.2006.07.005
27.
KerbowD. (1996). Patterns of urban student mobility and local school reform. Journal of Education for Students Placed at Risk, 1(2), 147. doi:10.1207/s15327671espr0102_5
28.
KerbowD.AzcoitiaC.BuellB. (2003). Student mobility and local school improvement in Chicago. The Journal of Negro Education, 72(1), 158–164.
29.
KohlerU.KarlsonK. B.HolmA. (2011). Comparing coefficients of nested nonlinear probabliity models. Stata Journal, 11(3), 420–438.
30.
KratochwillT. R.McDonaldL.LevinJ. R.Bear-TibbettsH. Y.DemarayM. K. (2004). Families and Schools Together: An experimental analysis of a parent-mediated multi-family group program for American Indian children. Journal of School Psychology, 42(5), 359–383. doi:10.1016/j.jsp.2004.08.001
31.
KratochwillT. R.McDonaldL.LevinJ. R.ScaliaP. A.CooverG. (2009). Families and Schools Together: An experimental study of multi-family support groups for children at risk. Journal of School Psychology, 47(4), 245–265. doi:10.1016/j.jsp.2009.03.001
32.
LashA. A.KirkpatrickS. L. (1990). A classroom perspective on student mobility. Elementary School Journal, 91(2), 177–191. doi:10.1086/461645
33.
LayzerJ. I.GoodsonB. D.BernsteinL.PriceC. (2001). National evaluation of family support programs. Final report volume B: Research studies. Cambridge, MA: Abt Associates, Inc.
34.
MagnusonK. A.WaldfogelJ. (2008). Steady gains and stalled progress: Inequality and the Black-White test score gap. New York, NY: Russell Sage Foundation.
35.
McCubbinH. I.SussmanM. B.PattersonJ. M. (1983). Social stress and the family: Advances and developments in family stress theory and research. London: The Haworth Press.
36.
McDonaldL. (2002). Evidence-based, family-strengthening strategies to reduce delinquency: FAST—Families and Schools Together. In RobertsA. R.GreenG. J. (Eds.), Social workers’ desk reference (pp. 717–722). New York, NY: Oxford University Press.
37.
McDonaldL. (2008). Children Families and Schools-NICHD-WCER FAST Manual. Edited by DanielC. L.Madison, WI: FAST National Training and Evaluation Center.
38.
McDonaldL.BillinghamS.ConradT.MorganA.ON.PaytonE. (1997). Families and Schools Together (FAST): Integrating community development with clinical strategies. Families in Society: The Journal of Contemporary Social Services, 78(2), 140-155. doi:10.1606/1044-3894.754
MehanaM.ReynoldsA. J. (2004). School mobility and achievement: A meta-analysis. Children and Youth Services Review, 26(1), 93–119. doi:10.1016/j.childyouth.2003.11.004
41.
MinuchinS. (1974). Families and family therapy. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.
42.
MitchellD. E.DestinoT.KaramR. (1997). Evaluation of English language development programs in the Santa Ana Unified School District. Riverside, CA: California Educational Research Cooperative. doi:10.1.1.198.4564
43.
MuthénL. K.MuthénB. O. (2010). Mplus user’s guide (6th ed.). Los Angeles, CA: Muthén & Muthén. Retrieved from http://statmodel2.com
44.
NelsonP. S.SimoniJ. M.AdelmanH. S. (1996). Mobility and school functioning in the early grades. Journal of Educational Research, 89(6), 365–369. doi:10.1080/00220671.1996.9941340
45.
ParkeC. S.KanyongoG. Y. (2012). Student attendance, mobility, and mathematics achievement in an urban school district. Journal of Educational Research, 105(3), 161–175. doi:10.1080/00220671.2010.547231
46.
PribeshS.DowneyD. B. (1999). Why are residential and school moves associated with poor school performance?Demography, 36(4), 521–534. doi:10.2307/2648088
47.
RaudenbushS. W.BrykA. S. (2002). Hierarchical linear models: Applications and data analysis methods. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications.
48.
ReamR. K. (2005). Toward understanding how social capital mediates the impact of mobility on Mexican American achievement. Social Forces, 84(1), 201–224. doi:10.1353/sof.2005.0121
49.
ReynoldsA.ChenC.HerbersJ. E. (2009, June). School mobility and educational success: A research synthesis and evidence on prevention. Paper presented at the Workshop on the Impact of Mobility and Change on the Lives of Young Children, Schools, and Neighborhoods, Board on Children, Youth, and Families, National Research Council, Washington, DC.
50.
RoystonP. (2005). Multiple imputation of missing values: Update. Stata Journal, 5(2), 1–14.
51.
RubinD. B. (1987). Multiple imputation for nonresponse in surveys. New York, NY: Wiley.
52.
RumbergerR. W. (2003). The causes and consequences of student mobility. Journal of Negro Education, 72(1), 6–21.
53.
RumbergerR. W.LarsonK. A. (1998). Student mobility and the increased risk of high school dropout. American Journal of Education, 107(1), 1–35.
54.
RumbergerR. W.LarsonK. A.ReamR. K.PalardyG. J. (1999). The educational consequences of mobility for California students and schools. Berkeley, CA: Policy Analysis for California Education, University of California, Berkeley & Stanford University. Retrieved from https://gse.soe.berkeley.edu
55.
SouthS. J.HaynieD. L.BoseS. (2007). Student mobility and school dropout. Social Science Research, 36(1), 68–94. doi:10.1016/j.ssresearch.2005.10.001
56.
SpilimbergoA.UbedaL. (2004). Family attachment and the decision to move by race. Journal of Urban Economics, 55(3), 478–497. doi:10.1016/j.jue.2003.07.004
57.
SwansonC. B.SchneiderB. (1999). Students on the move: Residential and educational mobility in America’s schools. Sociology of Education, 72(1), 54–67.
58.
TempleJ. A.ReynoldsA. J. (1999). School mobility and achievement: Longitudinal findings from an urban cohort. Journal of School Psychology, 37(4), 355–377. doi:10.1016/S0022-4405(99)00026-6
VoightA.ShinnM.NationM. (2012). The longitudinal effects of residential mobility on the academic achievement of urban elementary and middle school students. Educational Researcher, 41(9), 385–392. doi:10.3102/0013189X12442239
61.
von HippelP. T. (2009). How to impute interactions, squares and other transformed variables. Sociological Methodology, 39(1), 265–291. doi:10.1111/j.1467-9531.2009.01215.x
62.
Warren-SohlbergL.JasonL. A. (1992). How the reason for a school move relates to school adjustment. Psychology in the Schools, 29(1), 78–84. doi:10.1002/1520-6807(199201)29:1<78::AID-PITS2310290113>3.0.CO;2-7
63.
WoodD.HalfonN.ScarlataC.NewacheckP.NessimS. (1993). Impact of family relocation on children’s growth, development, school function, and behavior. Journal of the American Medical Association, 270(11), 1334–1338. doi:10.1001/jama.1993.035101100740
Supplementary Material
Please find the following supplemental material available below.
For Open Access articles published under a Creative Commons License, all supplemental material carries the same license as the article it is associated with.
For non-Open Access articles published, all supplemental material carries a non-exclusive license, and permission requests for re-use of supplemental material or any part of supplemental material shall be sent directly to the copyright owner as specified in the copyright notice associated with the article.
