4 recent theories concerning the superiority of pictures in memory were reviewed, that is, the basic assumptions and problems of dual-coding theory, levels-of-processing view, the sensory-semantic model, and propositional theories were discussed and evaluations made. Then problems and further tasks in memory for pictures were discussed and suggestions for theoretical development were offered.
AndersonJ. R.Cognitive psychology and its implications. San Francisco, CA: Freeman, 1980.
3.
AndersonJ. R.BowerG. H.Human associative memory. New York: Winston, 1973.
4.
AndersonJ. R.PaulsonR.Interference in memory for pictorial information. Cognitive Psychology, 1978, 10, 178–202.
5.
BaggettP.Memory for explicit and implicit information in picture stories. Journal of Verbal Learning and Verbal Behavior, 1975, 14, 538–548.
6.
BanksW. P.Encoding and processing of symbolic information in comparative judgments. In BowerG. H. (Ed.), The psychology of learning and motivation. New York: Academic Press, 1977. Vol.11. Pp. 101–159.
7.
CermakL. S.Amnesic patient's level of processing. In CermakL. S.CraikF. I. M. (Eds.), Levels of processing in human memory. Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum, 1979. Pp. 119–139.
8.
CraikF. I. M.Human memory. Annual Review of Psychology, 1979, 30, 63–102.
9.
CraikF. I. M.LockhartR. S.Levels of processing: a framework for memory research. Journal of Verbal Learning and Verbal Behavior, 1972, 11, 671–684.
10.
CraikF. I. M.TulvingE.Depth of processing and the retention of words in episodic memory, Journal of Experimental Psychology: General, 1975, 104, 268–294.
11.
EysenckM. W.Levels of processing: a critique. The British Journal of Psychology, 1978, 69, 157–169.
12.
GoldsteinA. G.ChanceJ. E.Visual recognition memory for complex configurations. Perception and Psychophysics, 1971, 9, 237–241.
13.
HaberR. N.How we remember what we see. Scientific American, 1970, 222, 104–112.
14.
IntraubH.The role of implicit naming in pictorial encoding. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Human Learning and Memory, 1979, 5, 78–87.
15.
KierasD.Beyond pictures and words: alternative information—processing models for imagery effects in verbal memory. Psychological Bulletin, 1978, 85, 532–554.
16.
KirkpatrickE. A.An experimental study of memory. Psychological Review, 1894, 1, 602–609.
17.
KobayashiS.An updated bibliography of picture-memory studies. Perceptual and Motor Skills, 1985, 61, 91–122.
18.
KosslynS. M.Image and mind. Cambridge, MA: Harvard Univer. Press, 1980.
19.
KunenS.GreenD.WatermanD.Spread of encoding effects within the nonverbal visual domain. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Human Learning and Memory, 1979, 5, 574–584.
20.
LockhartR. S.CraikF. I. M.JacobyL.Depth of processing, recognition, and recall. In BrownJ. (Ed.), Recall and recognition. New York: Wiley, 1976. Pp. 75–102.
21.
MadiganS.Picture memory. In YuilleJ. C. (Ed.), Imagery, memory, and cognition: essays in honor of Allan Paivio. Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum, 1983. Pp. 65–89.
22.
MiyazakiK. [Is mental imagery encoded in a pictorial format or a propositional format? On the debate over the essential character of mental imagery in cognitive psychology.] Annual Report of Educational Psychology in Japan, 1980, 19, 112–124. [Japanese].
23.
NelsonD. L.Remembering pictures and words: appearance, significance, and name. In CermakL. S.CraikF. I. M. (Eds.), Levels of processing in human memory. Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum, 1979. Pp. 45–76.
24.
NelsonD. L.BrooksD. H.Functional independence of pictures and their verbal memory codes. Journal of Experimental Psychology, 1973, 98, 44–48.
25.
NelsonD. L.ReedV. S.WallingJ. R.Pictorial superiority effect. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Human Learning and Memory, 1976, 2, 523–528.
26.
NickersonR. S.Short-term memory for complex meaningful visual configurations: a demonstration of capacity. Canadian Journal of Psychology, 1965, 19, 155–160.
27.
PaivioA.Imagery and verbal processes. New York: Holt, Rinehart & Winston, 1971.
28.
PaivioA.Imagery in recall and recognition. In BrownJ. (Ed.), Recall and recognition. New York: Wiley, 1976. Pp. 103–129.
29.
PaivioA.Empirical case for dual coding. In YuilleJ. C. (Ed.), Imagery, memory, and cognition: essays in honor of Allan Paivio. Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum, 1983. Pp. 307–332.
30.
PaivioA.BeggI.The psychology of language. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall, 1981.
31.
PaivioA.CsapoK.Picture superiority in free recall: imagery or dual coding?Cognitive Psychology, 1973, 5, 176–206.
32.
PaivioA.RogersT. B.SmytheP. C.Why are pictures easier to recall than words?Psychonomic Science, 1968, 11, 137–138.
33.
PotterM. C.FaulconerB. A.Time to understand pictures and words. Nature, 1975, 253, 437–438.
34.
PylyshynZ. W.What the mind's eye tells the mind's brain: a critique of mental imagery. Psychological Bulletin, 1973, 80, 1–24.
35.
ShepardR. N.Recognition memory for words, sentences, and pictures. Journal of Verbal Learning and Verbal Behavior, 1967, 6, 156–163.
36.
StandingL.ConezioJ.HaberR. N.Perception and memory for pictures: single trial learning of 2500 visual stimuli. Psychonomic Science, 1970, 19, 73–74.