This study examined the validity of the Sport Orientation Questionnaire (Competitiveness: 13 items, Win Orientation: 6 items, and Goal Orientation: 6 items) in a sample of 195 wheelchair basketball athletes from the USA. Following evidence for sample-specific validity, the measurement model that underlies the questionnaire was examined. A short-form with 15 items for three factors of Competitiveness (7 items), Win Orientation (5 items) and Goal Orientation (3 items) fit the data (χ2/ df ratio = 2.21, NNFI = .892, CFI = .991, RCFI = .935, SRMR = .058, RMSEA = .071). To evaluate the findings further, we cross-validated the short-form by sex. Structural equation modeling indicated there were similar measurement properties and factor structures for the men and women, indicating similar conceptualization of sport orientations. Meaningful comparisons across sex may be undertaken, since both men and women who are wheelchair basketball athletes perceive the three short-form SOQ factors similarly.
Get full access to this article
View all access options for this article.
References
1.
AcevedoE. O.DzewaltowskiD.GillD. L.NobleJ. (1992) Cognitive orientations of ultramarathoners. The Sport Psychologist, 6, 242–252.
2.
AskenM. J. (1991) The challenge of the physically challenged: delivering sport psychology services to physically disabled athletes. The Sport Psychologist, 5, 370–381.
3.
BentlerP. M. (1995) EQS Structural Equations program manual. Los Angeles, CA: BMDP Statistical Software.
4.
BentlerP. M.BonettD. G. (1980) Significance tests and goodness of fit in the analysis of covariance structures. Psychological Bulletin, 88, 588–606.
5.
BollenK. A. (1989) Structural equations with latent variables. New York: Wiley.
6.
BradleyJ. V. (1982) The insidious L-shaped distribution. Journal of the Psychonomic Society, 20, 85–88.
7.
BrasileF. D. (1988) Psychological factors that influence participation in wheelchair basketball. Palaestra, 4, 16–19.
8.
BrowneM. W.CudeckR. (1993) Alternative ways of assessing model fit. In BollenK. A.LongJ. S. (Eds.), Testing structural equation models. Newbury Park, CA: Sage. Pp. 136–162.
9.
BuanamanoR.CeiA.MussinoA. (1995) Participation motivation in Italian youth sport. The Sport Psychologist, 9, 265–281.
10.
ByrneB. M. (1989) A primer of LISREL: basic applications and programming for confirmatory factor analytic models. New York: Springer-Verlag.
11.
CampbellE.JonesG. (1994) Psychological well-being in wheelchair sport participants and nonparticipants. Adapted Physical Activity Quarterly, 11, 404–415.
12.
CampbellE.JonesG. (2002) Sources of stress experienced by elite male wheelchair basketball players. Adapted Physical Activity Quarterly, 19, 82–99.
13.
ChiL.DudaJ. L. (1995) Multi-sample confirmatory factor analysis of the Task and Ego Orientation in Sport Questionnaire. Research Quarterly for Exercise and Sport, 66, 91–98.
14.
CrockerP. R. E. (1993) Sport and exercise psychology and research with individuals with physical disabilities: using theory to advance knowledge. Adapted Physical Activity Quarterly10, 324–335.
15.
CronbachL. J. (1951) Coefficient alpha and the internal structure of tests. Psychometrika, 16, 297–334.
16.
DudaJ. L. (1989) Relationship between task and ego orientation and the perceived purpose of sport among high school athletes. Journal of Sport and Exercise Psychology, 11, 318–335.
17.
GillD. L. (1988) Gender differences in competitive orientation and sport participation. International Journal of Sport Psychology, 19, 145–159.
18.
GillD. L.DeeterT. E. (1988) Development of the Sport Orientation Questionnaire. Research Quarterly, 59, 191–202.
19.
GillD. L.DzewaltowskiD. (1988) Competitive orientations among intercollegiate athletes: is winning the only thing?The Sport Psychologist, 2, 212–221.
20.
GillD. L.DzewaltowskiD.DeeterT. E. (1988) The relationship of competitiveness and achievement orientation to participation in sport and non-sport activities. Journal of Sport and Exercise Psychology, 10, 139–150.
21.
GoodwinD. L.KrohnJ.KuhnleA. (2004) Beyond the wheelchair: the experience of dance. Adapted Physical Activity Quarterly, 21, 229–247.
22.
GreenwoodC. M.DzewaltowskiD. A.FrenchR. (1990) Self-efficacy and psychological well-being of wheelchair tennis participants and wheelchair non-tennis participants. Adapted Physical Activity Quarterly, 7, 12–21.
23.
HairJ.AndersonT.TathamR.BlackW. (1998) Multivariate data analysis. (5th ed.) Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice-Hall.
24.
HenschenK. P.HorvatM.RoswalG. (1992) Psychological profiles of the United States wheelchair basketball team. International Journal of Sport Psychology, 23, 128–137.
25.
HorvatM.RoswalG.JacobsD.GauntsS. (1989) Selected psychological comparisons of able-bodied and disabled athletes. Physical Educator, 46, 202–208.
26.
HoyleR. H.PanterA. T. (1995) Writing about structural equation models. In HoyleR. H. (Ed.), Structural equation modeling: concepts, issues and applications. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage. Pp. 158–176.
27.
HuL.BentlerP. M. (1999) Cutoff criteria for the fit indexes in covariance structure analysis: conventional criteria versus new alternatives. Structural Equation Modeling, 6, 1–55.
28.
HutzlerY.FliessO.ChachamA.Van den AuweeleY. (2002) Perspectives of children with physical disabilities on inclusion and empowerment: supporting and limiting factors. Adapted Physical Activity Quarterly, 19, 300–317.
29.
JamesL. R.MulaikS. A.BrettJ. M. (1982) Causal analysis: assumptions, models, and data. Beverly Hills, CA: Sage.
30.
JöreskogK.SörbomD. (1993) LISREL 8: structural modeling with the SIMPLIS command language. Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.
31.
KangL.GillD. L.AcevedoE. O.DeeterT. E. (1990) Competitive orientations among athletes and nonathletes in Taiwan. International Journal of Sport Psychology, 2, 146–157.
32.
KarteroliotisC. E. (1995) The Greek version of Sport Orientation Questionnaire. Paper presented at the IV European Congress of Psychology, Athens, Greece.
33.
KellowayE. K. (1998) Using LISREL for structural equation modeling: a researcher's guide. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.
34.
LernerB. S.LockeE. A. (1995) The effects of goal setting, self-efficacy, competition, and personal traits on the performance of an endurance task. Journal of Sport and Exercise Psychology, 17, 138–152.
35.
LiF.HarmerP.AcockA. (1996) The Task and Ego Orientation in Sport Questionnaire: construct equivalence and mean differences across gender. Research Quarterly for Exercise and Sport, 68, 228–238.
36.
LiF.HarmerP.DuncanT. E.DuncanS. C.AcockA.YamamotoT. (1998) Confirmatory factor analysis of the Task and Ego Orientation in Sport Questionnaire with cross-validation. Research Quarterly for Exercise and Sport, 69, 276–283.
37.
LongJ. S. (1983) Confirmatory factor analysis. Newbury Park, CA: Sage.
38.
MarshH. W. (1993) The multidimensional structure of physical fitness: invariance over gender and age. Research Quarterly for Exercise and Sport, 64, 256–273.
39.
MarshH. W. (1994) Confirmatory factor analysis models of factorial invariance: a multifaceted approach. Structural Equation Modeling, 1, 5–34.
40.
MartinJ. J.Adams-MushettC.SmithK. L. (1995) Athletic identity and sport orientation of adolescent swimmers with disabilities. Adapted Physical Activity Quarterly, 12, 113–123.
41.
MartinJ. J.EklundR. C.Adams-MushettC. (1997) Factor structure of the athletic identity measurement scale with athletes with disabilities. Adapted Physical Activity Quarterly, 14, 74–82.
42.
MartinJ. J.GillD. L. (1995) Competitive orientation, self-efficacy and goal importance in Filipino marathoners. International Journal of Sport Psychology, 26, 348–358.
43.
McDonaldR. P.MarshH. W. (1990) Choosing a multivariate model: noncentrality and goodness-of-fit. Psychological Bulletin, 107, 247–255.
44.
OgilvieB. C. (1985) Sport psychologist and the disabled athlete. Palaestra, 3, 36–43.
45.
PageS. J.MartinJ. J.WaydaV. K. (2001) Attitudes toward seeking sport psychology consultation among wheelchair basketball athletes. Adapted Physical Activity Quarterly, 18, 183–192.
46.
PageS. J.O'ConnorE. A.WaydaV. K. (2000) Exploring competitive orientation in a group of athletes participating in the 1996 Paralympic trials. Perceptual and Motor Skills, 91, 491–502.
47.
PaulsenP.FrenchR.SherrillC. (1990) Comparison of wheelchair athletes and nonathletes on selected mood states. Perceptual and Motor Skills, 71, 1160–1162.
48.
PedhazurE.Pedhazur-SchmelkinL. (1991) Measurement, design, and analysis: an integrated approach. Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.
49.
ReidG.PrupasA. (1998) A documentary analysis of research priorities in disability sport. Adapted Physical Activity Quarterly, 15, 168–178.
50.
RobertsG. C. (1992) Motivation in sport and exercise: conceptual constraints and convergence. In RobertsG. C. (Ed.), Motivation in sport and exercise. Champaign, IL: Human Kinetics. Pp. 3–29.
51.
SawilowskyS. (2000) Reliability: rejoinder to Thompson and Vacha-Haase. Educational and Psychological Measurement, 60, 196–200.
52.
SherrillC. (1997) The physical self: from motivation to well-being. Champaign, IL: Human Kinetics.
SkafidaF. A. (2002) The psychological characteristics of the Greek elite athletes with physical disabilities. Unpublished master's thesis, National and Kapodistrian Univer. of Athens, Athens, Greece.
55.
SkordilisE. K. (1998) Competitive, goal, and sport orientations of wheelchair athletes. Unpublished doctoral dissertation, Springfield College, Springfield, MA.
56.
SkordilisE. K.KoutsoukiD.AsonitouK.EvansE.JensenB. (2002) Comparison of sport achievement orientation between wheelchair and able-bodied basketball athletes. Perceptual and Motor Skills, 94, 214–218.
57.
SkordilisE. K.KoutsoukiD.AsonitouK.EvansE.JensenB.WallK. (2001) Sport orientations and goal perspectives of wheelchair athletes. Adapted Physical Activity Quarterly, 18, 304–315.
58.
SkordilisE. K.SherrillC.YillaA.KoutsoukiD.StavrouN. A. (2002) Use of the Sport Orientation Questionnaire with wheelchair athletes: examination of evidence for validity. Perceptual and Motor Skills, 95, 197–207.
59.
SteingerJ. H. (1990) Structural model evaluation and modification: an interval estimation approach. Multivariate Behavioral Research, 25, 173–180.
60.
SwainA. B.JonesJ. G. (1992) Relationships between sport achievement orientation and competitive state anxiety. The Sport Psychologist, 6, 42–54.
61.
TabachnickB. G.FidellL. S. (1996) Using multivariate statistics. (3rd ed.) New York: HarperCollins.
62.
ThomasJ.NelsonJ. (1990, 1996) Research methods in physical activity. (2nd, 3rd ed.) Champaign, IL: Human Kinetics.
63.
ThompsonB.Vacha-HaaseT. (2000) Psychometrics is datametrics: the test is not reliable. Educational and Psychological Measurement, 60, 174–195.
64.
WestS. G.FinchJ. F.CurranP. J. (1995) Structural equation models with non-normal variables: problems and remedies. In HoyleR. H. (Ed.), Structural equation modeling: concepts, issues, and applications. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage. Pp. 56–75.
65.
WhiteS. A.DudaJ. L. (1993) Dimensions of goals and beliefs among adolescent athletes with physical disabilities. Adapted Physical Activity Quarterly, 10, 125–136.
