Sequential strategies of digitized tablet drawings by 6–7–yr.-old children (N = 203) of average and below-average handwriting ability were analyzed. A Beery Visual Motor Integration (BVMI) and a Bender-Gestalt (BG) pattern, each composed of two tangential shapes, were predefined into area sectors for automatic analysis and adaptive mapping of the drawings. Girls more often began on the left side and used more strokes than boys. The below-average handwriting group showed more directional diversity and idiosyncratic strategies.
Get full access to this article
View all access options for this article.
References
1.
Adi-JaphaE.FreemanN. H. (1999) Development of handwriting as a domain of skilled performance. Paper presented at the 9th Biennial Conference of the International Graphonomics Society, Singapore, June 28–30.
2.
Adi-JaphaE.FreemanN. H. (2000) Regulation of division of labour between cognitive systems controlling action. Cognition, 76, 1–11. DOI: 10.1016/S0010-0277(00)00067-6.
3.
Adi-JaphaE.FreemanN. H. (2001) Development of differentiation between writing and drawing systems. Developmental Psychology, 37(1), 101–114. DOI: 10.1037/0012-1649.37.1.101.
4.
AverbeckB. B.ChafeeM. V.CroweD. A.GeorgopoulosA. P. (2003) Neural activity in prefrontal cortex during copying geometrical shapes. I. Single cells encode shape, sequence, and metric parameters. Experimental Brain Research, 150(2), 127–141. DOI: 10.1007/s00221-003-1416-6.
5.
BeeryK. E.BuktenicaN. A.BeeryN. A. (2004) Beery-Buktenica Developmental Test of Visual-Motor Integration. (5th ed.) San Antonio, TX: Pearson Assessment.
6.
BenderL. (1938) A visual-motor Gestalt test and its clinical use.Vol. 3. New York: American Orthopsychiatric Association.
7.
BranniganG.DeckerS.MadsenD. H. (2004) Innovative features of the Bender-Gestalt II and expanded guidelines for the use of the Global Scoring System.Itasca, IL: Riverside.
8.
BrennemanK.MasseyC.MachadoS. F.GelmanR. (1996) Young children's plans differ for writing and drawing. Cognitive Development, 11(3), 397–419. DOI: 10.1016/S0885-2014(96)90011-8.
ChapranJ.FairhurstM. C.GuestR. M.UjamC. (2008) Task-related population characteristics in handwriting analysis. IET Computer Vision, 2(2), 75–87. DOI: 10.1049/iet-cvi:20070069.
11.
ChartrelE.VinterA. (2008) The impact of spatio-temporal constraints on cursive letter handwriting in children. Learning and Instruction, 18(6), 537–547. Retrieved from http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.learninstruc.2007.11.003.
12.
Child Development Network. (2003) Child development milestones: 5 years.Brisbane, Australia: Queensland Government, Queensland Health.
13.
ChindaroS.GuestR.FairhurstM.PotterJ. (2004) Assessing visuo-spatial neglect through feature selection from shape drawing performance and sequence analysis. International Journal of Pattern Recognition and Artificial Intelligence, 18(07), 1253–1266. DOI: 10.1142/S0218001404003757.
14.
CluttenS. C. (2009) The development of a visual preception test for learners. Unpublished Master of Education thesis, Univer. of South Africa, Pretoria, South Africa.
15.
CobbahW. G. K.GuestR. M. (1998) Graphics tablet data capture program. (Version 1.2)Kent, UK: Univer. of Kent Electronic Engineering Labs. [Computer program].
16.
CornhillH.Case-SmithJ. (1996) Factors that relate to good and poor handwriting. American Journal of Occupational Therapy, 50(9), 732–739. DOI: 10.5014/ajot.50.9.732.
FairhurstM. C.LinnellT.GlenatS.GuestR. M.HeutteL.PaquetT. (2008) Developing a generic approach to online automated analysis of writing and drawing tests in clinical patient profiling. Behavior Research Methods, 40(1), 290–303. DOI: 10.3758/brm.40.1.290.
19.
GaronN.BrysonS. E.SmithI. M. (2008) Executive function in preschoolers: A review using an integrative framework. Psychological Bulletin, 134(1), 31–60. DOI: 10.1037/0033-2909.134.1.31.
20.
GoodnowJ. J.LevineR. A. (1973) “The grammar of action”: Sequence and syntax in children's copying. Cognitive Psychology, 4(1), 82–98. DOI: 10.1016/0010-0285(73)90005-4.
21.
GrahamS.StruckM.SantoroJ.BerningerV. W. (2006) Dimensions of good and poor handwriting legibility in first and second graders: Motor programs, visual-spatial arrangement, and letter formation parameter setting. Developmental Neuropsychology, 29(1), 43–60. DOI: 10.1207/s15326942dn2901_4.
22.
KaiserM-L.AlbaretJ-M.DoudinP-A. (2009) Relationship between visual-motor integration, eye-hand coordination, and quality of handwriting. Journal of Occupational Therapy, Schools, & Early Intervention, 2(2), 87–95. DOI: 10.1080/19411240903146228.
23.
Karmiloff-SmithA. (1990) Constraints on representational change: Evidence from children's drawing. Cognition, 34(1), 57–83. DOI: 10.1016/0010-0277(90)90031-E.
24.
Karmiloff-SmithA. (1994) Précis of beyond modularity: A developmental perspective on cognitive science. Behavioral and Brain Sciences, 17(4:), 693–707. DOI: 10.1017/S0140525X00036621.
25.
KhalidP. I.YunusJ.AdnanR. (2010) Extraction of dynamic features from hand drawn data for the identification of children with handwriting difficulty. Research in Developmental Disabilities, 31(1), 256–262. DOI: 10.1016/j.ridd.2009.09.009.
26.
KhalidP. I.YunusJ.AdnanR.HarunM.SudirmanR.MahmoodN. H. (2010) The use of graphic rules in grade one to help identify children at risk of handwriting difficulties. Research in Developmental Disabilities, 31(6), 1685–1693. DOI: 10.1016/j.ridd.2010.04.005.
27.
KlingbergT.ForssbergH.WesterbergH. (2002) Increased brain activity in frontal and parietal cortex underlies the development of visuospatial working memory capacity during childhood. Journal of Cognitive Neuroscience, 14(1), 1–10. DOI: 10.1162/089892902317205276.
28.
KocherryJ. J.SrimathveeravalliG.ChowriappaA. J.KesavadasT.GwanseobS. (2009) Improving haptic experience through biomechanical measurements. In JonesL.HardersM.YokokohjiY. (Eds.), Proceedings of the 3rd Joint EuroHaptics Conference and Symposium on Haptic Interfaces for Virtual Environment and Teleoperator Systems, Salt Lake City, UT, March 18–20. Pp. 362–367. DOI: 10.1109/WHC.2009.4810868.
29.
LandsmannL. T.Karmiloff-SmithA. (1992) Children's understanding of notations as domains of knowledge versus referential-communicative tools. Cognitive Development, 7(3), 287–300. DOI: 10.1016/0885-2014(92)90017-L.
30.
Lange-KüttnerC. (1989) Raumbegriff und Objektbeziehungen beim Kind [Space concept and object relations in the child].Frankfurt am Main, Germany, Bern, Switzerland, and New York: Lang.
31.
Lange-KüttnerC. (1994) Gestalt und Konstruktion [Gestalt and construction].Bern, Switzerland: Huber.
32.
Lange-KüttnerC. (1997) Development of size modification of human figure drawings in spatial axes systems of varying complexity. Journal of Experimental Child Psychology, 66(2), 264–278. DOI: 10.1006/jecp.l997.2386.
33.
Lange-KüttnerC. (1998) Pressure, velocity, and time in speeded drawing of basic graphic patterns by young children. Perceptual & Motor Skills, 86(3, Pt. 2), 1299–1310. DOI: 10.2466/pms.1998.86.3c.1299.
34.
Lange-KüttnerC. (2004) More evidence on size modification in spatial axes systems of varying complexity. Journal of Experimental Child Psychology, 88(2), 171–192. DOI: 10.1016/j.jecp.2004.02.003.
35.
Lange-KüttnerC. (2009) Habitual size and projective size: The logic of spatial systems in children's drawings. Developmental Psychology, 45(4), 913–927. DOI: 10.1037/a0016133.
36.
Lange-KüttnerC. (2011) Sex differences in visual realism in drawings of animate and inanimate objects. Perceptual & Motor Skills, 113(2), 439–453. DOI: 10.2466/04.10.24.pms.113.5.439-453.
37.
Lange-KüttnerC. (2014) Do drawing stages really exist? Children's early mapping of perspective. Psychology of Aesthetics, Creativity, and the Arts, 8(2), 168–182. DOI: 10.1037/a0036199.
38.
Lange-KüttnerC.EbersbachM. (2013) Girls in detail, boys in shape: Gender differences when drawing cubes in depth. British Journal of Psychology, 104(3), 413–437. DOI: 10.1111/bjop.12010.
39.
Lange-KüttnerC.GreenH. (2007) What is the age of mental rotation?Proceedings of the IEEE 6th International Conference on Development and Learning, London, UK, July 11–13. Pp. 259–263. DOI: 10.1109/devlrn.2007.4354043.
40.
Lange-KüttnerC.KerzmannA.HeckhausenJ. (2002) The emergence of visually realistic contour in the drawing of the human figure. British Journal of Developmental Psychology, 20(3), 439–463. DOI: 10.1348/026151002320620415.
41.
Lange-KüttnerC.VinterA. (2008) Drawing and the non-verbal mind: A lifespan perspective.Cambridge, UK: Cambridge Univer. Press.
42.
LevinI.BusA. G. (2003) How is emergent writing based on drawing? Analyses of children's products and their sorting by children and mothers. Developmental Psychology, 39(5), 891–905. DOI: 10.1037/0012-1649.39.5.891.
43.
LiX.SrimathveeravalliG.SinglaP.KesavadasT. (2009) A novel and robust algorithm to model handwriting skill for haptic applications. Proceedings of the IEEE International Conference on Systems, Man and Cybernetics, San Antonio, TX, October 11–14. Pp. 2912–2917. DOI: 10.1109/ICSMC.2009.5346088.
44.
MeulenbroekR.ThomassenA. J. W. M. (1993) Exploitation of elasticity as biomechanical property in the production of graphic stroke sequences. Acta Psychologica, 82, 313–327. DOI: 10.1016/0001-6918(93)90018-M.
OlsonD. R. (1970) Cognitive development: The child's acquisition of diagonality.Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum.
47.
RémiC.FrélicotC.CourtellemontP. (2002) Automatic analysis of the structuring of children's drawings and writing. Pattern Recognition, 35(5), 1059–1069. DOI: 10.1016/S0031-3203(01)00094-2.
48.
Renau-FerrerN.RemiC. (2011) Procedural description of drawing activity. Proceedings of the 15th International Graphonomics Society (IGS) Conference, Cancún, México, June 12–15. Pp. 30–33.
49.
RosenblumS. (2008) Development, reliability, and validity of the Handwriting Proficiency Screening Questionnaire (HPSQ). American Journal of Occupational Therapy, 62(3), 298–307. DOI: 10.5014/ajot.62.3.298.
50.
RueckriegelS. M.BlankenburgF.BurghardtR.EhrlichS.HenzeG.MerglR.DrieverHernáiz P. (2008) Influence of age and movement complexity on kinematic hand movement parameters in childhood and adolescence. International Journal of Developmental Neuroscience, 26(7), 655–663. DOI: 10.1016/j.ijdevneu.2008.07.015.
SimnerM. L.LeedhamC. G.ThomassenA. J. W. M. (1996) Handwriting and drawing research: Basic and applied issues.Amsterdam, The Netherlands: IOS Press.
53.
SudirmanR.Tabatabaey-MashadiN.AriffinI. (2011) Aspects of a standardized automated system for screening children's handwriting. Proceedings of the 1st International Conference on Informatics and Computational Intelligence, Bandung, Indonesia, December 12–14. Pp. 49–54. DOI: 10.1109/ICI.2011.19.
54.
Tabatabaey-MashadiN.SudirmanR.GuestR.KhalidP. (2014) Analyses of pupils' polygonal shape drawing strategy with respect to handwriting performance. Pattern Analysis and Applications, 1–16. DOI: 10.1007/s10044-014-0423-5.
55.
Tabatabaey-MashadiN.SudirmanR.KhalidP. I. (2013) An evaluation of children's structural drawing strategies. Jurnal Teknologi [Science and Engineering], 61(2), 27–32. DOI: 10.11113/jt.v61.1632.
56.
TaguchiM.NomaY. (2005) Relationship between directionality and orientation in drawings by young children and adults. Perceptual & Motor Skills, 101(1), 90–94. DOI: 10.2466/pms.101.1.90-94.
57.
ThibautJ-P.ToussaintL. (2010) Developing motor planning over ages. Journal of Experimental Child Psychology, 105(1–2), 116–129. DOI: 10.1016/j.jecp.2009.10.003.
58.
VaidJ. (1995) Script directionality influences nonlinguistic performance: Evidence from Hindi and Urdu. In OlsonI. T. D. (Ed.), Scripts and literacy: Reading and learning to read alphabets, syllabaries and characters.Dordrecht, The Netherlands: Kluwer Academic. Pp. 295–310.
59.
van SommersP. (1989) A system for drawing and drawing-related neuropsychology. Cognitive Neuropsychology, 6(2), 117–164. DOI: 10.1080/02643298908253416.
60.
VinterA. (1999) How meaning modifies drawing behavior in children. Child Development, 70(1), 33–49. DOI: 10.1111/1467-8624.00004.
61.
VinterA.MarotV. (2007) The development of context sensitivity in children's graphic copying strategies. Developmental Psychology, 43(1), 94–110. DOI: 10.1037/0012-1649.43.1.94.
62.
VivianiP.SchneiderR. (1991) A developmental study of the relationship between geometry and kinematics in drawing movements. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Human Perception and Performance, 17(1), 198–218. Retrieved from http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/0096-1523.17.1.198.
63.
WeilM. J.AmundsonS. J. C. (1994) Relationship between visuomotor and handwriting skills of children in kindergarten. American Journal of Occupational Therapy, 48(11), 982–988. DOI: 10.5014/ajot.48.11.982.
64.
WillE. J.WillQ. D. E. (2011) Validating features for inferring handwriting speed from static trace. Paper presented at the 15th International Graphonomics Society Conference, Cancun, Mexico, June 12–15.
65.
WillatsJ. (1997) Art and representation: New principles in the analysis of pictures: Princeton, NJ: Princeton Univer. Press.
66.
WillinghamW. W.ColeN. S. (1997) Gender and fair assessment.Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.