Cryptorchidism is one of the most frequent problems encountered in pediatric urology. Its causes, associated lesions, and prognosis in terms of fertility have been a source of interest and discrepancies for pediatric pathologists and urological surgeons.
ScorerCG. The descent of the testis. Arch Dis Child1964;39:605–609.
2.
ThonneauPFGandiaPMieussetR. Cryptorchidism: Incidence, risk factors, and potential role of environment; an update. J Androl2003;24:155–162.
3.
Cryptorchidism: An apparent substantial increase since 1960. John Radcliffe Hospital Cryptorchidism Study Group. Br Med J (Clin Res Ed).1986;293:1401–1404.
4.
Cryptorchidism: A prospective study of 7500 consecutive male births, 1984–8. John Radcliffe Hospital Cryptorchidism Study Group. Arch Dis Child1992;67:892–899.
5.
VirtanenHEBjerknesRCortesD. Cryptorchidism: Classification, prevalence and long-term consequences. Acta Paediatr2007;96:611–616.
6.
ScorerCGFarringtonGH. Congenital Deformities of the Testis and Epididymis. New York: Appleton-Century-Crofts; 1971:136–146.
SuetomiTKawaiKSekidoNKikuchiKTakeshimaHAkazaH. Testicular cancers occurring in brothers with cryptorchism [sic]. Int J Urol2002;9:67–70.
9.
MainKMSkakkebaekNEVirtanenHEToppariJ. Genital anomalies in boys and the environment. Best Pract Res Clin Endocrinol Metab2010;24:279–289.
10.
SkakkebaekNERajpert-De MeytsEMainKM. Testicular dysgenesis syndrome: An increasingly common developmental disorder with environmental aspects. Hum Reprod2001;16:972–978.
11.
NemecSFNemecUBruggerPC. Male genital abnormalities in intrauterine growth restriction. Prenatal Diagn2012;32:427–431.
12.
AkreOLipworthLCnattingiusSSparenPEkbomA. Risk factor patterns for cryptorchidism and hypospadias. Epidemiology1999;10:364–369.
13.
BerkowitzGSLapinskiRHGodboldJHDolginSEHolzmanIR. Maternal and neonatal risk factors for cryptorchidism. Epidemiology1995;6:127–131.
14.
HjertkvistMDamberJEBerghA. Cryptorchidism: A registry based study in Sweden on some factors of possible aetio-logical importance. J Epidemiol Community Health1989;43:324–329.
15.
WeidnerISMollerHJensenTKSkakkebaekNE. Risk factors for cryptorchidism and hypospadias. J Urol1999;161:1606–1609.
16.
AdesanyaOAAdemuyiwaAOBodeCOAdeyomoyeAA. Diagnostic value of high resolution ultrasound in localisation of the undescended testis in children. Afr J Paediatr Surg2013;10:127–130.
17.
TasianGECoppHLBaskinLS. Diagnostic imaging in cryptorchidism: Utility, indications, and effectiveness. J Pediatr Surg2011;46:2406–2413.
18.
NistalMPaniaguaRGonzález-PeramatoPReyes-MúgicaM. Perspectives in pediatric pathology: Chapter 2. Testicular descent. Pediatr Dev Pathol2015;18:103–108.
19.
FerlinAZuccarelloDZuccarelloBChiricoMRZanonGFForestaC. Genetic alterations associated with cryptorchidism. JAMA2008;300:2271–2276.
20.
HutsonJMHasthorpeSHeynsCF. Anatomical and functional aspects of testicular descent and cryptorchidism. Endocr Rev1997;18:259–280.
HusmannDALevyJB. Current concepts in the pathophysiology of testicular undescent. Urology1995;46:267–276.
23.
WienerJSMarcelliMGonzalesETJrRothDRLambDJ. Androgen receptor gene alterations are not associated with isolated cryptorchidism. J Urol1998;160(3 Pt 1):863–865.
24.
SharpeRMSkakkebaekNE. Are oestrogens involved in falling sperm counts and disorders of the male reproductive tract?Lancet1993;341:1392–1395.
25.
HadziselimovicFGenetoREmmonsLR. Elevated placental estradiol: A possible etiological factor of human cryptorchidism. J Urol2000;164:1694–1695.
26.
HutsonJMHasthorpeS. Abnormalities of testicular descent. Cell Tissue Res2005;322:155–158.
27.
GuvenAKoganBA. Undescended testis in older boys: Further evidence that ascending testes are common. J Pediatr Surg2008;43:1700–1704.
28.
HackWWSijstermansKvan DijkJvan der Voort-DoedensLMde KokMEHobbelt-StokerMJ. Prevalence of acquired undescended testis in 6-year, 9-year and 13-year-old Dutch school-boys. Arch Dis Child2007;92:17–20.
29.
EardleyISawKCWhitakerRH. Surgical outcome of orchidopexy. II. Trapped and ascending testes. Br J Urol1994;73:204–206.
30.
ColodnyAH. Iatrogenic ascent of the testis: An underrecognized complication of inguinal hernia operation in children. Br J Urol1994;74:531–532.
31.
KaplanGW. Iatrogenic cryptorchidism resulting from hernia repair. Surg Gynecol Obstet1976;142:671–672.
32.
SuranaRPuriP. Iatrogenic ascent of the testis: An underrecognized complication of inguinal hernia operation in children. Br J Urol1994;73:580–581.
33.
HackWWGoedeJvan der Voort-DoedensLMMeijerRW. Acquired undescended testis: Putting the pieces together. Int J Androl2012;35:41–45.
34.
HackWWvan der Voort-DoedensLMGoedeJvan DijkJMMeijerRWSijstermansK. Natural history and long-term testicular growth of acquired undescended testis after spontaneous descent or pubertal orchidopexy. BJU Int2010;106:1052–1059.
35.
BonneyTHutsonJSouthwellBNewgreenD. Update on congenital versus acquired undescended testes: Incidence, diagnosis and management. ANZ J Surg2008;78:1010–1013.
36.
GraciaJNavarroEGuiradoFPueyoCFerrandezA. Spontaneous ascent of the testis. Br J Urol1997;79:113–115.
37.
MyersNAOfficerCB. Undescended testis: Congenital or acquired?Aust Paediatr J1975;11:76–80.
38.
ClarnetteTDRoweDHasthorpeSHutsonJM. Incomplete disappearance of the processus vaginalis as a cause of ascending testis. J Urol1997;157:1889–1891.
39.
ShonoTZakariaOImajimaTSuitaS. Does proximal genitofemoral nerve division induce testicular maldescent or ascent in the rat?BJU Int1999;83:323–326.
40.
DocimoSG. Testicular descent and ascent in the first year of life. Urology1996;48:458–460.
41.
AtwellJD. Ascent of the testis: Fact or fiction. Br J Urol1985;57:474–477.
42.
WrightJE. Testes do ascend. Pediatr Surg Int1989;4:269–272.
43.
RabinowitzRHulbertWCJr. Late presentation of cryptorchidism: The etiology of testicular re-ascent. J Urol1997;157:1892–1894.
44.
TasianGEZaidHCabanaMDBaskinLS. Proximal hypospadias and risk of acquired cryptorchidism. J Urol2010;184:715–720.
45.
NistalMPaniaguaRGonzález-PeramatoPReyes-MúgicaM. Perspectives in pediatric pathology, chapter 3. Testicular development from birth to puberty: Systematic evaluation of the pubertal testis. Pediatr Dev Pathol2015;18:173–186.
46.
JedrzejewskiGWozniakMMMadejTKryzaRZielonka-LamparskaEWieczorekAP. The differences in testicular volumes in boys 8–36 months old with undescended, retractile and hydrocele testis—usefulness of scrotal screening ultrasound. Early Hum Dev2012;88:185–189.
47.
NistalMPaniaguaR. Testicular biopsy. Contemporary interpretation. Urol Clin North Am1999;26:555–593.
48.
HadziselimovicFHochtBHerzogBBuserMW. Infertility in cryptorchidism is linked to the stage of germ cell development at orchidopexy. Horm Res2007;68:46–52.
RusnackSLWuHYHuffDS. The ascending testis and the testis undescended since birth share the same histopathology. J Urol2002;168:2590–2591.
51.
NistalMPaniaguaRDiez-PardoJA. Histologic classification of undescended testes. Hum Pathol1980;11:666–674.
52.
CortesDThorupJVisfeldtJ. Multinucleated spermatogonia in cryptorchid boys: A possible association with an increased risk of testicular malignancy later in life?APMIS2003;111:25–30; discussion 1.
53.
HuffDSFenigDMCanningDACarrMGZdericSASnyderHMIII. Abnormal germ cell development in cryptorchidism. Horm Res2001;55:11–17.
54.
SantamariaLMartinez-OnsurbePPaniaguaRNistalM. Laminin, type IV collagen, and fibronectin in normal and cryptorchid human testes. An immunohistochemical study. Int J Androl1990;13:135–146.
55.
AbouZeidAAMousaMHSolimanHAHamzaAFHaySA. Intra-abdominal testis: Histological alterations and significance of biopsy. J Urol2011;185:269–274.
56.
GiachiniCNutiFMarinariEFortiGKrauszC. Partial AZFc deletions in infertile men with cryptorchidism. Hum Reprod2007;22:2398–2403.
57.
YoshidaTOhnoKMorotomiY. Clinical and pathological features of ascending testis. Osaka City Med J2009;55:81–87.
58.
MayrJRuneGMHolasASchimplGSchmidtBHaberlikA. Ascent of the testis in children. Eur J Pediatr1995;154:893–895.
59.
ImthurnTHadziselimovicFHerzogB. Impaired germ cells in secondary cryptorchid testis after herniotomy. J Urol1995;153(3 Pt 1):780–781.
60.
NistalMPaniaguaRAbaurreaMASantamariaL. Hyperplasia and the immature appearance of Sertoli cells in primary testicular disorders. Hum Pathol1982;13:3–12.
61.
RegaderaJMartinez-GarciaFGonzalez-PeramatoPSerranoANistalMSuarez-QuianC. Androgen receptor expression in Sertoli cells as a function of seminiferous tubule maturation in the human cryptorchid testis. J Clin Endocrinol Metab2001;86:413–421.
62.
LackgrenGPloenL. The morphology of the human undescended testis with special reference to the Sertoli cell and puberty. Int J Androl1984;7:23–38.
63.
RogatschHJezekDHittmairAMikuzGFeichtingerH. Expression of vimentin, cytokeratin, and desmin in Sertoli cells of human fetal, cryptorchid, and tumour-adjacent testicular tissue. Virchows Arch1996;427:497–502.
64.
GotohMMiyakeKMitsuyaH. Elastic fibers in tunica propria of undescended and contralateral scrotal testes from cryptorchid patients. Urology1987;30:359–363.
65.
MaekawaMKazamaHKamimuraKNaganoT. Changes in the arrangement of actin filaments in myoid cells and Sertoli cells of rat testes during postnatal development and after experimental cryptorchidism. Anat Rec (Hoboken)1995;241:59–69.
66.
NistalMPaniaguaRGonzález-PeramatoPReyes-MúgicaM. Perspectives in pediatric pathology, chapter 11. Testicular pathology of hamartomatous origin. Pediatr Dev Pathol2016;19:1–11.
67.
HedingerE. Histopathology of undescended testes. Eur J Pediatr1982;139:266–271.
68.
NistalMJimenez-HeffernanJA. Rete testis dysgenesis. A characteristic lesion of undescended testes. Arch Pathol Lab Med1997;121:1259–1264.
69.
ForestaCFerlinAGarollaAMilaniCOlivaGRossatoM. Functional and cytologic features of the contralateral testis in cryptorchidism. Fertil Steril1996;66:624–629.
70.
VinardiSMagroPManentiM. Testicular function in men treated in childhood for undescended testes. J Pediatr Surg2001;36:385–388.
71.
NistalMRiestraMLPaniaguaR. Correlation between testicular biopsies (prepubertal and postpubertal) and spermiogram in cryptorchid men. Hum Pathol2000;31:1022–1030.
72.
NistalMPaniaguaRRiestraMLReyes-MugicaMCajaibaMM. Bilateral prepubertal testicular biopsies predict significance of cryptorchidism-associated mixed testicular atrophy, and allow assessment of fertility. Am J Surg Pathol2007;31:1269–1276.
73.
ElderJS. Epididymal anomalies associated with hydrocele/hernia and cryptorchidism: Implications regarding testicular descent. J Urol1992;148(Pt 2):624–626.
74.
MollaeianMMehrabiVElahiB. Significance of epididymal and ductal anomalies associated with undescended testis: Study in 652 cases. Urology1994;43:857–860.
DadfarMR. Orchidopexy for retractile testes in infertile men: A prospective clinical study. Urol J2007;4:164–168.
77.
KollinCKarpeBHesserUGranholmTRitzenEM. Surgical treatment of unilaterally undescended testes: Testicular growth after randomization to orchiopexy at age 9 months or 3 years. J Urol2007;178(4 Pt 2):1589–1593; discussion 93.
78.
McCabeJEKennySE. Orchidopexy for undescended testis in England: Is it evidence based?J Pediatr Surg2008;43:353–357.
79.
ParkKHLeeJHHanJJLeeSDSongSY. Histological evidences suggest recommending orchiopexy within the first year of life for children with unilateral inguinal cryptorchid testis. Int J Urol2007;14:616–621.
80.
RitzenEM. Undescended testes: A consensus on management. Eur J Endocrinol.2008;159(suppl 1):S87–S90.
81.
GolabekTKielyE. Patterns of referral and treatment of undescended testis: A 12-year experience in a single centre. Ir J Med Sci2010;179:511–514.
82.
MathersMJSperlingHRubbenHRothS. The undescended testis: Diagnosis, treatment and long-term consequences. Dtsch Arztebl Int2009;106:527–532.
83.
ThorssonAVChristiansenPRitzenM. Efficacy and safety of hormonal treatment of cryptorchidism: Current state of the art. Acta Paediatr2007;96:628–630.
84.
HadziselimovicFZivkovicD. Is the prohibition of hormonal treatment for cryptorchidism, as suggested by the Nordic consensus group, justifiable?[letter] Acta Paediatr2007;96:1368–1369; author reply 1370.
ZivkovicDBicaDTHadziselimovicF. Relationship between adult dark spermatogonia and secretory capacity of Leydig cells in cryptorchidism. BJU Int2007;100:1147–1149; discussion 1149.
87.
CortesDThorupJMVisfeldtJ. Cryptorchidism: Aspects of fertility and neoplasms. A study including data of 1,335 consecutive boys who underwent testicular biopsy simultaneously with surgery for cryptorchidism. Horm Res2001;55:21–27.
88.
SilberSJKellyJ. Successful autotransplantation of an intra-abdominal testis to the scrotum by microvascular technique. J Urol1976;115:452–454.
89.
MelchiorDKaeferMEugsterEHavlikR. A novel microvascular approach to treatment of the high undescended testicle. J Pediatr Surg2002;37:1501–1503.
90.
TackettLDWacksmanJBillmireDSheldonCAMinevichE. The high intra-abdominal testis: Technique and long-term success of laparoscopic testicular autotransplantation. J Endourol2002;16: 359–361.
91.
BukowskiTPWacksmanJBillmireDALewisAGSheldonCA. Testicular autotransplantation: A 17-year review of an effective approach to the management of the intra-abdominal testis. J Urol1995;154(2 Pt 1):558–561.
92.
MacMahonRAO'BrienBMAberdeenJRichardsonWCussenLJ. Results of the use of autotransplantation of the intra-abdominal testis using microsurgical vascular anastomosis. J Pediatr Surg1980;15:92–96.
EijsboutsSWde Muinck Keizer-SchramaSMHazebroekFW. Further evidence for spontaneous descent of acquired undescended testes. J Urol2007;178(4 Pt 2):1726–1729.
95.
Meij-de VriesAGoedeJvan der VoortLHeijHAMeijerRWHackWW. Long-term testicular position and growth of acquired undescended testis after prepubertal orchidopexy. J Pediatr Surg2012;47:727–735.
96.
ElderJS. Laparoscopy for impalpable testes: Significance of the patent processus vaginalis. J Urol1994;152(2 Pt 2):776–778.
CivesR VarelaCasasnovasA BautistaMartinA AlonsoAriasM PomboSierraR Tojo. The influence of patency of the vaginal process on the efficacy of hormonal treatment of cryptorchidism. Eur J Pediatr1996;155:932–936.
99.
AggarwalHKoganBAFeustelPJ. One third of patients with a unilateral palpable undescended testis have a contralateral patent processus. J Pediatr Surg2012;47:1711–1715.
100.
PatelRPKolonTFHuffDS. Cryptorchid testis histopathology in myelomeningocele patients. J Pediatr Urol2008;4:434–437.
HillSJDurhamMM. Management of cryptorchidism and gastroschisis. J Pediatr Surg2011;46:1798–1803.
103.
CortesDThorupJMNielsenOHBeckBL. Cryptorchidism in boys with imperforate anus. J Pediatr Surg1995;30:631–635.
104.
MisraDMushtaqIDrakeDPKielyEMSpitzL. Associated urologic anomalies in low imperforate anus are capable of causing significant morbidity: A 15-year experience. Urology.1996;48:281–283.
105.
MathewsRIPerlmanEMarshDWGearhartJP. Gonadal morphology in cloacal exstrophy: Implications in gender assignment. BJU Int1999;84:99–100.
106.
NistalMCastilloMCRegaderaJGarcia-CabezasMA. Adenomatous hyperplasia of the rete testis. A review and report of new cases. Histol Histopathol2003;18:741–752.
107.
TaskinenSHovattaOWikstromS. Early treatment of cryptorchidism, semen quality and testicular endocrinology. J Urol1996;156:82–84.
108.
JohansenTE. Anatomy of the testis and epididymis in cryptorchidism. Andrologia1987;19:565–569.
109.
KoffWJScaletsckyR. Malformations of the epididymis in undescended testis. J Urol1990;143:340–343.
110.
MarshallFFElderJS. Cryptorchidism and Related Anomalies. New York: Preger; 1982.
111.
Pippi-SalleJLLangerJFavoritoLA. Unilateral renal agenesia associated with partial epididymis and vas deferens agenesia in a patient with abdominal testicle. Int Braz J Urol2006;32:208–210.
112.
NistalMPaniaguaRGonzález-PeramatoPReyes-MügicaM. Perspectives in pediatric pathology, chapter 12. Congenital epididymal anomalies. Pediatr Dev Pathol2016;19:12–23.
113.
De MiguelMPMarinoJMGonzalez-PeramatoPNistalMRegaderaJ. Epididymal growth and differentiation are altered in human cryptorchidism. J Androl2001;22:212–225.
114.
BartholdJSRedmanJF. Association of epididymal anomalies with patent processus vaginalis in hernia, hydrocele and cryptorchidism. J Urol1996;156:2054–2056.
115.
FavoritoLASampaioFJJavaroniVCardosoLECostaWS. Proximal insertion of gubernaculum testis in normal human fetuses and in boys with cryptorchidism. J Urol2000;164(3 Pt 1):792–794.
116.
GutierrezACamposACanizaresFJCrespoPVSanchezC. Anatomical and clinical correlation with histological and histo-metric patterns in cryptorchism [sic]. Br J Urol1993;72:506–509.
117.
RiebelTHerrmannCWitJSellinS. Ultrasonographic late results after surgically treated cryptorchidism. Pediatr Radiol2000;30:151–155.
118.
SasagawaIYamaguchiOShiraiwaYNakadaT. Klinefelter's syndrome associated with unilateral cryptorchidism in childhood. Urol Int1991;47:178–180.
119.
YamaguchiTKitadaSOsadaY. Chromosomal anomalies in cryptorchidism and hypospadias. Urol Int1991;47:60–63.
120.
KaeferMDiamondDHendrenWH. The incidence of intersexuality in children with cryptorchidism and hypospadias: Stratification based on gonadal palpability and meatal position. J Urol1999;162(3 Pt 2):1003–1007; discussion 1006–1007.
121.
RajferJWalshPC. The incidence of intersexuality in patients with hypospadias and cryptorchidism. J Urol1976;116:769–770.
122.
WongCACudaSKirschA. A review of the urologic manifestations of Beckwith-Wiedemann syndrome. J Pediatr Urol2011;7:140–144.
CortesDThorupJMBeckBLVisfeldtJ. Cryptorchidism as a caudal developmental field defect. A new description of cryptorchidism associated with malformations and dysplasias of the kidneys, the ureters and the spine from T10 to S5. APMIS1998;106:953–958.
MetwalleyKAFarghalleyHSAbd-ElsayedAA. Prune belly syndrome in an Egyptian infant with Down syndrome: A case report. J Med Case Rep2008;2:322.
130.
ShahDSharmaSFaridiMMMishraK. VACTERL association with prune-belly syndrome. Indian J Pediatr2004;41:845–847.
131.
SilengoMBarberisLFerreroGBSorasioLValenziseM. A possible relationship between Beckwith–Wiedemann syndrome and prune belly syndrome. Clin Dysmorphol2002;11:293–294.
132.
StephensFDGuptaD. Pathogenesis of the prune belly syndrome. J Urol1994;152(6 Pt 2):2328–2331.
133.
LuzardoMR GarciaFuenteB ValencianoSuarezP BasNaranjoAM Bello. Pseudo-prune-belly syndrome: A prune-belly without cryptorchidism [in Spanish]. Anales de pediatria2011;75:70–72.
134.
NakayamaDKHarrisonMRChinnDHde LorimierAA. The pathogenesis of prune belly. Am J Dis Child1984;138:834–836.
135.
SigelASchrottKM. [Congenital megaureter and its implications]. Der Urologe Ausg A1982;21:312–317.
136.
PapantoniouNPapoutsisDDaskalakisG. Prenatal diagnosis of prune-belly syndrome at 13 weeks of gestation: Case report and review of literature. J Matern Fetal Neonatal Med2010;23:1263–1267.
137.
WoodhouseCRRansleyPGInnes-WilliamsD. Prune belly syndrome—report of 47 cases. Arch Dis Child1982;57:856–859.
138.
OrvisBRBottlesKKoganBA. Testicular histology in fetuses with the prune belly syndrome and posterior urethral valves. J Urol1988;139:335–337.
139.
MassadCACohenMBKoganBABecksteadJH. Morphology and histochemistry of infant testes in the prune belly syndrome. J Urol1991;146:1598–1600.
140.
ParraROCummingsJMPalmerDC. Testicular seminoma in a long-term survivor of the prune belly syndrome. Eur Urol1991;19:79–80.
141.
SayreRStephensRChonkoAM. Prune belly syndrome and retroperitoneal germ cell tumor. Am J Med1986;81:895–897.
142.
HallBD. Choanal atresia and associated multiple anomalies. J Pediatr1979;95:395–398.
SullivanKE. Chromosome 22q11.2 deletion syndrome: DiGeorge syndrome/velocardiofacial syndrome. Immunology and allergy clinics of North America.2008;28:353–366.
152.
JainSKimHGLacbawanF. Unique phenotype in a patient with CHARGE syndrome. Int J Pediatr Endocrinol.2011;2011:11.
153.
PintoGAbadieVMesnageR. CHARGE syndrome includes hypogonadotropic hypogonadism and abnormal olfactory bulb development. J Clin Endocrinol Metab2005;90:5621–5626.
154.
RaganDCCasaleAJRinkRCCainMPWeaverDD. Genitourinary anomalies in the CHARGE association. J Urol1999; 161:622–625.
155.
KielyEA. Scientific basis of testicular descent and management implications for cryptorchidism. Br J Clin Pract1994];48:37–41.
156.
AkreOPetterssonARichiardiL. Risk of contralateral testicular cancer among men with unilaterally undescended testis: A meta analysis. Int J Cancer2009;124:687–689.
157.
LipSZMurchisonLECullisPSGovanLCarachiR. A meta-analysis of the risk of boys with isolated cryptorchidism developing testicular cancer in later life. Arch Dis Child2013;98:20–26.
158.
GiwercmanAMullerJSkakkeboekNE. Cryptorchidism and testicular neoplasia. Horm Res1988;30:157–163.
159.
MollerHPrenerASkakkebaekNE. Testicular cancer, cryptorchidism, inguinal hernia, testicular atrophy, and genital malformations: Case-control studies in Denmark. Cancer Causes Control1996;7:264–274.
160.
ChengCChanPS. Cryptorchism [sic] with a large abdominal mass—a challenge. Br J Urol1993;72:946–948.
161.
CortesDThorupJFrischMMollerHJacobsenGKBeckBL. Examination for intratubular germ cell neoplasia at operation for undescended testis in boys. J Urol1994;151:722–725.
162.
BerthelsenJGSkakkebaekNE. Distribution of carcinoma “in situ” in testes from infertile men. Int J Androl1981(suppl 4): 172–184.
163.
PedersenKVBoiesenPZetterlundCG. Experience of screening for carcinoma-in-situ of the testis among young men with surgically corrected maldescended testes. Int J Androl1987;10:181–185.
164.
BerthelsenJGSkakkebaekNEMogensenPSorensenBL. Incidence of carcinoma in situ of germ cells in contralateral testis of men with testicular tumours. Br Med J1979;2(6186):363–364.
165.
ParkinsonMCSwerdlowAJPikeMC. Carcinoma in situ in boys with cryptorchidism: When can it be detected?Br J Urol1994;73:431–435.
166.
DieckmannKPPichlmeierU. Clinical epidemiology of testicular germ cell tumors. World J Urol2004;22:2–14.
167.
EngelerDSHosliPOJohnH. Early orchiopexy: Prepubertal intratubular germ cell neoplasia and fertility outcome. Urology2000;56:144–148.
168.
AbrattRPReddiVBSarembockLA. Testicular cancer and cryptorchidism. Br J Urol1992;70:656–659.
169.
GuminskaASlowikowska-HilczerJKuzanskiW. Features of impaired seminiferous tubule differentiation are associated with germ cell neoplasia in adult men surgically treated in childhood because of cryptorchidism. Folia Histochem Cytobiol2007; 45(suppl 1):S163–S168.
170.
GauwitzMDZagarsGK. Treatment of seminoma arising in cryptorchid testes. Int J Radiat Oncol Biol Phys1992;24:153–159.
171.
HutsonJM. Journal of Pediatric Surgery-Sponsored Fred McLoed Lecture. Undescended testis: The underlying mechanisms and the effects on germ cells that cause infertility and cancer. J Pediatr Surg2013;48:903–908.
172.
World Health Organization. Towards more objectivity in diagnosis and management of male infertility. Int J Androl (Suppl.)1987;7:1–53.
173.
CarizzaCAntibaAPalazziJPistonoCMoranaFAlarconM. Testicular maldescent and infertility. Andrologia1990;22:285–288.
174.
RobinGBoitrelleFMarcelliF. [Cryptorchidism: From physiopathology to infertility]. Gynecol Obstet Fertil2010;38:588–599.
175.
CortesDThorupJ. Histology of testicular biopsies taken at operation for bilateral maldescended testes in relation to fertility in adulthood. Br J Urol1991;68:285–291.
176.
PuriPO'DonnellB. Semen analysis of patients who had orchidopexy at or after seven years of age. Lancet1988;2:1051–1052.
177.
PuriPO'DonnellB. Semen analysis in patients operated on for impalpable testes. Br J Urol1990;66:646–647.
178.
KoganSJ. Fertility in cryptorchidism. An overview in 1987. Eur J Pediatr1987;146(suppl 2):S21–S24.
179.
PonchiettiRGrechiG. Fertility in unilateral cryptorchidism: Review of 104 cases. Acta Eur Fertil1986;17:277–278.
180.
LeePACoughlinMT. Fertility after bilateral cryptorchidism. Evaluation by paternity, hormone, and semen data. Horm Res2001;55:28–32.
181.
CoughlinMTO'LearyLASongerNJBellingerMFLaPorteRELeePA. Time to conception after orchidopexy: Evidence for subfertility?Fertil Steril1997;67:742–746.
182.
MahmoudAMComhaireFHAbdel-RahimDEAbdel-HafezKM. Conception rates and assisted reproduction in subfertility due to unilateral cryptorchidism. Andrologia1996;28:141–144.
183.
SmithEMDahmsBBElderJS. Influence of vas deferens mobilization on rat fertility: Implications regarding orchiopexy. J Urol1993;150(2 Pt 2):663–666.
184.
LeePACoughlinMTBellingerMF. Paternity and hormone levels after unilateral cryptorchidism: Association with pretreatment testicular location. J Urol2000;164:1697–1701.
185.
LeePACoughlinMTBellingerMF. No relationship of testicular size at orchiopexy with fertility in men who previously had unilateral cryptorchidism. J Urol2001;166:236–239.
186.
WilkersonMLBartoneFFFoxLHadziselimovicF. Fertility potential: A comparison of intra-abdominal and intracanalicular testes by age groups in children. Horm Res2001;55:18–20.
187.
CendronMKeatingMAHuffDSKoopCESnyderHMIIIDuckettJW. Cryptorchidism, orchiopexy and infertility: A critical long-term retrospective analysis. J Urol1989;142(2 Pt 2):559–562; discussion 572.
188.
CortesDThorupJMLindenbergS. Fertility potential after unilateral orchiopexy: Simultaneous testicular biopsy and orchiopexy in a cohort of 87 patients. J Urol1996;155:1061–1065.
189.
CortesDThorupJMLindenbergS. Fertility potential after unilateral orchiopexy: An age independent risk of subsequent infertility when biopsies at surgery lack germ cells. J Urol1996;156:217–220.
190.
HadziselimovicFHeckerEHerzogB. The value of testicular biopsy in cryptorchidism. Urol Res1984;12:171–174.
191.
NohPHCooperCSSnyderHMIIIZdericSACanningDAHuffDS. Testicular volume does not predict germ cell count in patients with cryptorchidism. J Urol2000;163:593–596.
192.
IrkilataHCYildirimIOnguruOAydurEMusabakUDayancM. The influence of orchiopexy on serum inhibin B level: Relationship with histology. J Urol2004;172(6 Pt 1):2402–2405; discussion 2405.
193.
MarcelliFRobinGLefebvre-KhalilV. [Results of surgical testicular sperm extractions (TESE) in a population of azoospermic patients with a history of cryptorchidism based on a 10-year experience of 142 patients]. Prog Urol2008;18:657–662.
194.
GersterAG. Torsion of the testis. Ann Surg1898;27:649.
195.
PapparellaANinoFCoppolaSParmeggianiP. An unusual case of intra-abdominal testicular torsion: Role of laparoscopy. Afr J Paediatr Surg2013;10:29–31.
196.
CandociaFJSack-SolomonK. An infant with testicular torsion in the inguinal canal. Pediatr Radiol2003;33:722–724.
197.
PogorelicZMrklicIJuricIBiocicMFurlanD. Testicular torsion in the inguinal canal in children. J Pediatr Urol2013; 9(6 Pt A):793–797.
198.
HaynesBEBessenHAHaynesVE. The diagnosis of testicular torsion. JAMA1983;249:2522–2527.
199.
KrarugT. The testis after torsion. Br J Urol1978;50:43–16.
200.
RanslerCWIIIAllenTD. Torsion of the spermatic cord. Urol Clin North Am1982;9:245–250.
201.
WilliamsonRC. Torsion of the testis and allied conditions. Br J Surg1976;63:465–476.
202.
AndersenLWille-JorgensenPA. Torsion of the testis. A 5-year material. Scand J Urol Nephrol1990;24:91–93.
203.
KnightRMCuencaPJ. Torsion of undescended testis in a 14-month-old child refusing to bear weight. West J Emerg Med.2011;12:515–519.
204.
SingalAKJainVDubeyMDeshpandeP. Undescended testis and torsion: Is the risk understated?Arch Dis Child2013;98:77–79.
205.
ZilbermanDWinklerHKleinmannN. Testicular prosthesis insertion following testicular loss or atrophy during early childhood—technical aspects and evaluation of patient satisfaction. J Pediatr Urol2007;3:461–465.
206.
WardJFCilentoBGJrKaplanGWVellingTEPuckettMStockJ. The ultrasonic description of postpubertal testicles in men who have undergone prepubertal orchiopexy for cryptorchidism. J Urol2000;163:1448–1450.
207.
LeeKFTangYCLeongHT. Emergency laparoscopic orchidectomy for torsion of intra-abdominal testis: A case report. J R Coll Surg Edinb2001;46:110–112.
208.
CortesD. Cryptorchidism—aspects of pathogenesis, histology and treatment. Scand J Urol Nephrol Suppl1998;196:1–54.
209.
BlosP. Comments on the psychological consequences of cryptorchidism. Psychoanal Study Child1960;15:395–429.
210.
MartinezYMillanAGilabertRDelgadoLDe AgustinJC. [Study of satisfaction of testicular prosthesis implantation in children]. Cirugia pediatrica: organo oficial de la Sociedad Espanola de Cirugia Pediatrica.2012;25:20–23.
211.
TaskinenSHovattaOWikstromS. Sexual development in patients treated for cryptorchidism. Scand J Urol Nephrol1997;31:361–364.
212.
SchoorlM. Classification and diagnosis of undescended testes. Eur J Pediatr1982;139:253–254.
213.
SugiyamaTKiwamotoHOhnishiNEsaAParkYCKuritaT. Burst activities of cremasteric motor units. Int Urol Nephrol1994;26:681–689.
214.
Bingol-KologluMTanyelFCAnlarBBuyukpamukcuN. Cremasteric reflex and retraction of a testis. J Pediatr Surg2001;36:863–867.
215.
CaesarREKaplanGW. The incidence of the cremasteric reflex in normal boys. J Urol1994;152(2 Pt 2):779–780.
216.
AlexandreC. Les testicules oscillants. Forme degradee de cryptorchidie?J Gynecol Obstet Biol Reprod(Paris)1977;6:71–74.
217.
ItoHKataumiZYanagiS. Changes in the volume and histology of retractile testes in prepubertal boys. Int J Androl1986;9:161–169.
218.
NistalMPaniaguaR. Infertility in adult males with retractile testes. Fertil Steril1984;41:395–403.
219.
HuffDSHadziselimovicFSnyderHMIIIBlytheBDucketJW. Histologic maldevelopment of unilaterally cryptorchid testes and their descended partners. Eur J Pediatr1993;152(suppl 2):S11–S14.
220.
SmithJAHutsonJMBeasleySWReddihoughDS. The relationship between cerebral palsy and cryptorchidism. J Pediatr Surg1989;24:1303–1305.
221.
DickermanZBaumanBSandovskyU. Human chorionic gonadotropin (hCG) treatment in cryptorchidism. Andrologia1983;15 Spec No:542–547.
222.
MetinAKayigilOAhmedSI. The efficacy of human chorionic gonadotropin in retractile testis. Neuro Endocrinol Lett2005;26:39–42.
223.
MieussetRBujanLMassatGMansatAPontonnierF. Clinical and biological characteristics of infertile men with a history of cryptorchidism. Hum Reprod1995;10:613–619.
224.
InanMAydinerCYTokucB. Prevalence of cryptorchidism, retractile testis and orchiopexy in school children. Urol Int2008;80:166–171.
225.
StecAAThomasJCDeMarcoRTPopeJCBrockJWIIIAdamsMC. Incidence of testicular ascent in boys with retractile testes. J Urol2007;178(4 Pt 2):1722–1725; discussion 1724–1725.
226.
AgarwalPKDiazMElderJS. Retractile testis—is it really a normal variant?J Urol2006;175:1496–1499.
227.
BaeJJKimBSChungSK. Long-term outcomes of retractile testis. Korean J Urol2012;53:649–653.
228.
WyllieGG. The retractile testis. Med J Aust1984;140:403–405.
229.
CintiSBarbatelliGPierleoniCCaucciM. The normal, cryptorchid and retractile prepuberal human testis: A comparative morphometric ultrastructural study of 101 cases. Scanning Microsc1993;7:351–358; discussion 358–362.
230.
HanSWLeeTKimJHChoiSKChoNHHanJY. Pathological difference between retractile and cryptorchid testes. J Urol1999;162(3 Pt 1):878–880.
231.
NistalMGarcia-RodejaEPaniaguaR. Granular transformation of Sertoli cells in testicular disorders. Hum Pathol1991;22:131–137.
232.
RuneGMMayrJNeugebauerHAndersCSauerH. Pattern of Sertoli cell degeneration in cryptorchid prepubertal testes. Int J Androl1992;15:19–31.
233.
SaitoSKumamotoY. The number of spermatogonia in various congenital testicular disorders. J Urol1989;141:1166–1168.
234.
La ScalaGCEinSH. Retractile testes: An outcome analysis on 150 patients. J Pediatr Surg2004;39:1014–1017.
235.
PuriPNixonHH. Bilateral retractile testes-subsequent effects on fertility. J Pediatr Surg1967;12:563–566.
236.
AbyholmTOianPGordeladzeJO. True cryptorchidism and retractile testes in infertile men. Acta Eur Fertil1986;17:15–18.
237.
IngerslevHJRasmussenTBHostrupH. [Fertility after spontaneous descent of the testis after the age of 10]. Ugeskr Laeger1985;147:2444–2447.
238.
RabochJPondelickovaJ. [Andrological findings in adolescents with retractile testis]. Andrologia1988;20:417–421.
239.
RasmussenTBIngerslevHJHostrupH. Natural history of the maldescended testis. Horm Res1988;30:164–166.
240.
CaroppoENiederbergerCElhanblySSchoorRRossLD'AmatoG. Effect of cryptorchidism and retractile testes on male factor infertility: A multicenter, retrospective, chart review. Fertil Steril2005;83:1581–1584.
241.
CaucciMBarbatelliGCintiS. The retractile testis can be a cause of adult infertility. Fertil Steril1997;68:1051–1058.
242.
MieussetRBujanLEMassatGMansatAPontonnierF. Inconstant ascending testis as a potential risk factor for spermatogenesis in infertile men with no history of cryptorchism. Hum Reprod1997;12:974–979.
243.
KeysCHelouryY. Retractile testes: A review of the current literature. J Pediatr Urol2012;8:2–6.
244.
GohDWHutsonJM. Is the retractile testis a normal physiological variant of an anomaly that requires active treatment?Pediatr Surg Int1992;7:249–252.
245.
GohDWHutsonJM. The retractile testis: Time for a reappraisal. J Paediatr Child Health1993;29:407–408.
246.
BoisenKAMainKMRajpert-De MeytsESkakkebaekNE. Are male reproductive disorders a common entity? The testicular dysgenesis syndrome. Ann N Y Acad Sci2001;948:90–99.
247.
FerlinABogatchevaNVGianeselloL. Insulin-like factor 3 gene mutations in testicular dysgenesis syndrome: Clinical and functional characterization. Mol Hum Reprod2006;12:401–406.
248.
NistalMGonzalez-PeramatoPRegaderaJSerranoATarinVDe MiguelMP. Primary testicular lesions are associated with testicular germ cell tumors of adult men. Am J Surg Pathol2006;30:1260–1268.
249.
VirtanenHERajpert-De MeytsEMainKMSkakkebaekNEToppariJ. Testicular dysgenesis syndrome and the development and occurrence of male reproductive disorders. Toxicol Appl Pharmacol.2005;207(suppl 2):501–505.
250.
ToppariJLarsenJCChristiansenP. Male reproductive health and environmental xenoestrogens. Environ Health Perspect1996;104(suppl 4):741–803.
251.
FisherJSMacphersonSMarchettiNSharpeRM. Human ‘testicular dysgenesis syndrome’: A possible model using in-utero exposure of the rat to dibutyl phthalate. Hum Reprod2003;18:1383–1394.
252.
GabelPJensenMSAndersenHR. The risk of cryptorchidism among sons of women working in horticulture in Denmark: A cohort study. Environ Health2011;10:100.
253.
Martinez-ArguellesDBCampioliECultyMZirkinBRPapadopoulosV. Fetal origin of endocrine dysfunction in the adult: The phthalate model. J Steroid Biochem Mol Biol2013;137: 5–17.
254.
SharpeRM. The “oestrogen hypothesis”—where do we stand now?Int J Androl2003;26:2–15.
255.
SharpeRMSkakkebaekNE. Testicular dysgenesis syndrome: Mechanistic insights and potential new downstream effects. Fertil Steril2008;89(suppl 2):e33–e38.
256.
BayKAsklundCSkakkebaekNEAnderssonAM. Testicular dysgenesis syndrome: Possible role of endocrine disrupters. Best Pract Res Clin Endocrinol Metab2006;20:77–90.
257.
GiwercmanARylanderLHagmarLGiwercmanYL. Ethnic differences in occurrence of TDS—genetics and/or environment?Int J Androl2006;29:291–297; discussion 304–306.
258.
NistalMRegaderaJWinitzkyPTejerinaEChemesH. Granular changes in Sertoli cells in children and pubertal patients. Fertil Steril2005;83:1489–1499.
259.
OlwennVM. Testicular dysgenesis syndrome and the estrogen hypothesis: A quantitative meta-analysis. Health Perspect2008;116:149–157.
260.
MainKMSkakkebaekNEToppariJ. Cryptorchidism as part of the testicular dysgenesis syndrome: The environmental connection. Endocr Dev2009;14:167–173.
261.
DalgaardMDWeinholdNEdsgardD. A genome-wide association study of men with symptoms of testicular dysgenesis syndrome and its network biology interpretation. J Med Genet2012;49:58–65.
JorgensenNRajpert-De MeytsEMainKMSkakkebaekNE. Testicular dysgenesis syndrome comprises some but not all cases of hypospadias and impaired spermatogenesis. Int J Androl2010;33:298–303.
264.
ThorupJMcLachlanRCortesD. What is new in cryptorchidism and hypospadias—a critical review on the testicular dysgenesis hypothesis. J Pediatr Surg2010;45:2074–2086.
265.
ToppariJVirtanenHEMainKMSkakkebaekNE. Cryptorchidism and hypospadias as a sign of testicular dysgenesis syndrome (TDS): Environmental connection. Birth Defects Res A Clin Mol Teratol2010;88:910–919.