Tracheostomy is the most common surgical procedure performed on critically ill patients. For those who survive their critical illnesses but remain ventilator-dependent, tracheostomy provides patients with a secure airway that frees the mouth for oral nutrition, enhances verbalized speech, and promotes generalized comfort. Avoiding complications from tracheostomy requires a skilled multi-disciplinary approach to ensure that the benefits outweigh the risks of the procedure.
1. Kollef MH , Ahrens TS , Shannon WClinical predictors and outcomes for patients requiring tracheostomy in the intensive care unit . Crit Care Med1999; 27: 1714-1720 .
2.
2. Fischler L , Erhart S , Kleger GR , Frutiger A . Prevalence of tracheostomy in ICU patients. A nation-wide survey in Switzerland . Intensive Care Med2000; 26: 1428-1433 .
3.
3. Esteban A , Anzueto A , Alia I et al. How is mechanical ventilation employed in the intensive care unit? An international utilization review . Am J Respir Crit Care Med2000; 161: 1450-1458 .
4.
4. Watson CB . Prediction of a difficult intubation: methods for successful intubation . Respir Care1999; 44: 777-798 .
5.
5. Walls RM . Cricothyroidotomy . Emerg Med Clinic North Am1988; 6: 725-736 .
6.
6. McLure HA , Dob DP , Mannan MM , Soni N . A laboratory comparison of two techniques of emergency percutaneous tracheostomy . Anaesthesia1997; 52: 1199-1201 .
7.
7. Dob DP , McLure HA , Soni N . Failed intubation and emergency percutaneous tracheostomy . Anaesthesia1998; 53: 72-74 .
8.
8. Ault MJ , Ault B , Ng PK . Percutaneous dilatational tracheostomy for emergent airway access . J Intensive Care Med2003; 18: 222-226 .
9.
9. Ben-Nun A , Altman E , Best LA . Emergency percutaneous tracheostomy in trauma patients: an early experience . Ann Thorac Surg2004; 77: 1045-1047 .
10.
10. Klein M , Weksler N , Kaplan DM et al. Emergency percutaneous tracheostomy is feasable in experienced hands . Eur J Emerg Med2004; 11: 108-112 .
11.
11. L'Her E , Goetghebeur D , Boumedienne A et al. Use of the Blue Rhino tracheostomy set for emergency airway management . Intensive Care Med2001; 27: 322-322 .
12.
12. Johnson JL , Cheatham ML , Sagraves SG et al. Percutaneous dilational tracheostomy: a comparison of single- versus multiple-dilator techniques . Crit Care Med2001; 29: 1251-1254 .
15. Ciaglia P , Firsching R , Syniec C . Elective percutaneous dilatational tracheostomy. A new simple bedside procedure: preliminary report . Chest1985; 87: 715-719 .
16.
16. Griggs WM , Worthley LI , Myburgh JA . Percutaneous tracheostomy . Anaesth Intensive Care1991; 19: 131-132 .
17.
17. Fernandez L , Norwood S , Roettger R et al. Bedside percutaneous tracheostomy with bronchoscopic guidance in critically ill patients . Arch Surg1996; 131: 129-132 .
18.
18. Byhahn C , Westphal K , Meininger D et al. Single-dilator percutaneous tracheostomy: a comparison of PercuTwist and Ciaglia Blue Rhino techniques . Intensive Care Med2002; 28: 1262-1266 .
19.
19. Byhahn C , Wilke HJ , Halbig S et al. Percutaneous tracheostomy: ciaglia blue rhino versus the basic ciaglia technique of percutaneous dilational tracheostomy . Anesth Analg2000; 91: 882-886 .
20.
20. Cothren C , Offner PJ , Moore EE et al. Evaluation of a new technique for bedside percutaneous tracheostomy . Am J Surg2002; 183: 280-282 .
21.
21. Beiderlinden M , Karl Walz M , Sander A et al. Complications of bronchoscopically guided percutaneous dilational tracheostomy: beyond the learning curve . Intensive Care Med2002; 28: 59-62 .
22.
22. Bewsher MS , Adams AM , Clarke CW et al. Evaluation of a new percutaneous dilatational tracheostomy set apparatus . Anaesthesia2001; 56: 859-864 .
23.
23. Carrillo EH , Spain DA , Bumpous JM et al. Percutaneous dilational tracheostomy for airway control . Am J Surg1997; 174: 469-473 .
24.
24. McHenry CR , Raeburn CD , Lange RL , Priebe PPPercutaneous tracheostomy: a cost-effective alternative to standard open tracheostomy (see comments) . Am Surg1997; 63: 646-651. discussion 651-652 .
25.
25. Cobean R , Beals M , Moss C , Bredenberg CE . Percutaneous dilatational tracheostomy. A safe, cost-effective bedside procedure . Arch Surg1996; 131: 265-271 .
26.
26. Hill BB , Zweng TN , Maley RH et al. Percutaneous dilational tracheostomy: report of 356 cases . J Trauma1996; 41: 238-243. discussion 243-244 .
27.
27. Friedman Y . Experience with percutaneous dilational tracheostomy . Ann Otol Rhinol Laryngol2001; 110: 799-799 .
28.
28. Friedman Y , Fildes J , Mizock B et al. Comparison of percutaneous and surgical tracheostomies . Chest1996; 110: 480-485 .
29.
29. Friedman Y , Mizock BA . Percutaneous versus surgical tracheostomy: procedure of choice or choice of the procedure . Crit Care Med1999; 76: 1684-1685 .
30.
30. Winkler WB , Karnik R , Seelmann O et al. Bedside percutaneous dilational tracheostomy with endoscopic guidance: experience with 71 ICU patients (see comments) . Intensive Care Med1994; 20: 476-479 .
31.
31. Toursarkissian B , Zweng TN , Kearney PA et al. Percutaneous dilational tracheostomy: report of 141 cases . Ann Thorac Surg1994; 57: 862-867 .
32.
32. Anon JM , Escuela MP , Gomez V et al. Use of percutaneous tracheostomy in intensive care units in Spain. Results of a national survey . Intensive Care Med2004; 30: 1212-1215 .
33.
33. Fikkers BG , Fransen GA , van der Hoeven JG et al. Tracheostomy for long-term ventilated patients: a postal survey of ICU practice in The Netherlands . Intensive Care Med2003; 29: 1390-1393 .
34.
34. Griggs WM , Worthley LIG , Gilligan JE et al. A simple percutaneous tracheostomy technique . Surg Gyn Obstet1990; 170: 543-545 .
35.
35. Frova G , Quintel M . A new simple method for percutaneous tracheostomy: controlled rotating dilation. A preliminary report . Intensive Care Med2002; 28: 299-303 .
36.
36. Fantoni A . A breakthrough in trachestomy techniques: translaryngeal tracheostomy. A new era?Minerva Anesthesiologica1995; 62: 313-325 .
37.
37. Kumar M , Jaffery A , Jones M . Short-term complications of percutaneous tracheostomy: experience of a district general hospitalotolaryngology department . J Laryngol Otol2002; 116: 1025-1027 .
38.
38. Heffner JE , Sahn SA . Tracheostomy in critically ill patients: techniques and complications . J Crit Illness1987; 2: 74-81 .
39.
39. Walts PA , Murthy SC , DeCamp MM . Techniques of surgical tracheostomy . Clin Chest Med2003; 24: 413-422 .
40.
40. Mansharamani NG , Koziel H , Garland R et al. Safety of bedside percutaneous dilatational tracheostomy in obese patients in the ICU . Chest2000; 117: 1426-1429 .
41.
41. Sustic A , Zupan Z , Antoncic II . Ultrasound-guided percutaneous dilatational tracheostomy with laryngeal mask airway control in a morbidly obese patient . J Clin Anesth2004; 16: 121-123 .
42.
42. Kluge S , Meyer A , Kuhnelt P et al. Percutaneous tracheostomy is safe in patients with severe thrombocytopenia . Chest2004; 126: 547-551 .
43.
43. Hazard PB , Garrett HEJ , Adams JW et al. Bedside percutaneous tracheotomy: experience with 55 elective procedures . Ann Thorac Surg1988; 46: 63-67 .
44.
44. Leinhardt DJ , Mughal M , Bowles B et al. Appraisal of percutaneous tracheostomy . Br J Surg1992; 79: 255-258 .
45.
45. Ciaglia P , Graniero KD . Percutaneous dilational tracheostomy. Results and long-term follow-up . Chest1992; 101: 464-467 .
47. Hazard P , Jones C , Benitone J . Comparative clinical trial of standard operative tracheostomy with percutaneous tracheostomy . Crit Care Med1991; 19: 1018-1024 .
48.
48. Van Natta TL , Morris JA, Jr , Eddy VA et al. Elective bedside surgery in critically injured patients is safe and cost-effective . Ann Surg1998; 227: 618-624. discussion 624-626 .
49.
49. Barba CA , Angood PB , Kauder DR et al. Bronchoscopic guidance makes percutaneous tracheostomy a safe, cost-effective, and easy-to-teach procedure . Surgery1995; 118: 879-883 .
50.
50. Freeman BD , Isabella K , Cobb JP et al. A prospective, randomized study comparing percutaneous with surgical tracheostomy in critically ill patients . Crit Care Med2001; 29: 926-930 .
51.
51. Wu JJ , Huang MS , Tang GJ et al. Percutaneous dilatational tracheostomy versus open tracheostomy-a prospective, randomized, controlled trial . J Chin Med Assoc2003; 66: 467-473 .
52.
52. Gatti G , Cardu G , Bentini C et al. Weaning from ventilator after cardiac operation using the Ciaglia percutaneous tracheostomy . Eur J Cardiothorac Surg2004; 25: 541-547 .
54. Gysin C , Dulguerov P , Guyot JP et al. Percutaneous versus surgical tracheostomy: a double-blind randomized trial . Ann Surg1999; 230: 708-714 .
55.
55. Holdgaard HO , Pedersen J , Jensen RH et al. Percutaneous dilatational tracheostomy versus conventional surgical tracheostomy. A clinical randomised study . Acta Anaesthesiol Scand1998; 42: 545-550 .
56.
56. Melloni G , Muttini S , Gallioli G et al. Surgical tracheostomy versus percutaneous dilatational tracheostomy. A prospective-randomized study with long-term follow-up . J Cardiovasc Surg (Torino)2002; 43: 113-121 .
57.
57. Massick DD , Yao S , Powell DM et al. Bedside tracheostomy in the intensive care unit: a prospective randomized trial comparing open surgical tracheostomy with endoscopically guided percutaneous dilational tracheotomy . Laryngoscope2001; 111: 494-500 .
58.
58. Stoeckli SJ , Breitbach T , Schmid S . A clinical and histologic comparison of percutaneous dilational versus conventional surgical tracheostomy . Laryngoscope1997; 107: 1643-1646 .
59.
59. Muttini S , Melloni G , Gemma M et al. Percutaneous or surgical trachetomy. Prospective, randomized comparison of the incidence of early and late complications . MinervaAnestesiol1999; 65: 521-527 .
60.
60. Heffner JE . Percutaneous dilatational vs standard tracheotomy: a meta-analysis but not the final analysis . Chest2000; 118: 1236-1238 .
61.
61. Goldstein SI , Breda SD , Schneider KL . Surgical complications of bedside tracheotomy in an otolaryngology residency program . Laryngoscope1987; 97: 1407-1409 .
62.
62. Francois B , Clavel M , Desachy A et al. Complications of tracheostomy performed in the ICU: subthyroid tracheostomy vs surgical cricothyroidotomy . Chest2003; 123: 151-158 .
63.
63. Crofts SL , Alzeer A , McGuire GP et al. A comparison of percutaneous and operative tracheostomies in intensive care patients . Can J Anaesth1995; 42: 775-779 .
64.
64. Fikkers BG , van Veen JA , Kooloos JG et al. Emphysema and pneumothorax after percutaneous tracheostomy: case reports and an anatomic study . Chest2004; 125: 1805-1814 .
65.
65. Berrouschot J , Oeken J , Steiniger L , Schneider D . Perioperative complications of percutaneous dilational tracheostomy . Laryngoscope1997; 107: 1538-1544 .
66.
66. Lin JC , Maley RH, Jr , Landreneau RJ . Extensive posterior-lateral tracheal laceration complicating percutaneous dilational tracheostomy . Ann Thorac Surg2000; 70: 1194-1196 .
67.
67. Grillo HC , Moncure AC , McEnany MT . Repair of inflammatory tracheoesophageal fistula . Ann Thorac Surg1976; 22: 112-116 .
68.
68. Reed MF , Mathisen DJ . Tracheoesophageal fistula . Chest Surg Clin N Am2003; 13: 271-289 .
69.
69. Jones JW , Reynolds M , Hewitt RL , Drapanas T . Tracheo-innominate artery erosion: successful surgical management of a devastating complication . Ann Surg1976; 184: 194-204 .
70.
70. Ross CB , Morris JA . Tracheoinnominate artery fistula: A potentially fatal complication of tracheostomy . J Tenn Med Assoc1988; 81: 446-449 .
71.
71. Gwilyn S , Cooney A . Acute fatal haemorrhage during percutaneous dilatational tracheostomy . Br J Anaesth2004; 92: 298-298 .
72.
72. Shlugman D , Satya-Krishna R , Loh L . Acute fatal haemorrhage during percutaneous dilatational tracheostomy . Br J Anaesth2003; 90: 517-520 .
73.
73. Teoh WH , Goh KY , Chan C . The role of early tracheostomy in critically ill neurosurgical patients . Ann Acad Med Singapore2001; 30: 234-238 .
74.
74. Watanakunakorn C . Successful novel drainage treatment of mediastinal abscess complicating tracheostomy . Chest1989; 96: 946-948 .
75.
75. Leder SB , Ross DA . Investigation of the causal relationship between tracheotomy and aspiration in the acute care setting . Laryngoscope2000; 110: 641-644 .
76.
76. Leder SB . Incidence and type of aspiration in acute care patients requiring mechanical ventilation via a new tracheotomy . Chest2002; 122: 1721-1726 .
77.
77. Elpem EH , Jacobs ER , Bone RC . Incidence of aspiration in tracheally intubated adults . Heart Lung1987; 16: 527-531 .
78.
78. Elpern EH , Scott MG , Petro L , Ries MH . Pulmonary aspiration in mechanically ventilated patients with tracheostomies . Chest1994; 105: 563-566 .
79.
79. Polderman KH , Spijkstra JJ , de Bree R et al. Percutaneous dilatational tracheostomy in the ICU: optimal organization, low complication rates, and description of a new complication . Chest2003; 123: 1595-1602 .
81. Cooper JD , Grillo HC . Experimental production and prevention of injury due to cuffed tracheal tubes . Surg Gynecol Obstet1969; 129: 1235-1241 .
82.
82. Wood DE , Mathisen DJ . Late complications of tracheotomy . Clin Chest Med1991; 12: 597-609 .
83.
83. Koitschev A , Graumueller S , Zenner HP et al. Tracheal stenosis and obliteration above the tracheostoma after percutaneous dilational tracheostomy . Crit Care Med2003; 31: 1574-1576 .
84.
84. Briche T , Le Manach Y , Pats B . Complications of percutaneous tracheostomy . Chest2001; 119: 1282-1283 .
85.
85. Norwood S , Vallina VL , Short K et al. Incidence of tracheal stenosis and other late complications after percutaneous tracheostomy . Ann Surg2000; 232: 233-241 .
86.
86. Gambale G , Cancellieri F , Baldini U et al. Ciaglia percutaneous dilational tracheostomy. Early and late complications and follow-up . Minerva Anestesiol2003; 69: 825-830; 830-833 .
87.
87. Callanan V , Gillmore K , Field S , Beaumont A . The use of magnetic resonance imaging to assess tracheal stenosis following percutaneous dilatational tracheostomy . J Laryngol Otol1997; 111: 953-957 .
88.
88. van Heurn LW , Goei R , de Ploeg I et al. Late complications of percutaneous dilatational tracheotomy . Chest1996; 110: 1572-1576 .
89.
89. Law RC , Carney AS , Manara AR . Long-term outcome after percutaneous dilational tracheostomy. Endoscopic and spirometry findings . Anaesthesia1997; 52: 51-56 .
90.
90. Rosenbower TJ , Morris JA, Jr , Eddy VA , Ries WR . The long-term complications of percutaneous dilatational tracheostomy . Am Surg1998; 64: 82-86 .
91.
91. Fischler MP , Kuhn M , Cantieni R , Frutiger A . Late outcome of percutaneous dilatational tracheostomy in intensive care patients . Intensive Care Med1995; 21: 475-481 .
92.
92. Powell DM , Price PD , Forrest LA . Review of percutaneous tracheostomy . Laryngoscope1998; 108: 170-177 .
93.
93. Grillo HC , Mathisen D . Surgical management of tracheal strictures . J Cardiothorac Surg1988; 68: 511-524 .
95. Louis JS , Antok E , Charretier PA et al. Tracheo-oesophageal fistula. A rare complication of percutaneous tracheostomy . Ann Fr Anesth Reanim2003; 22: 349-352 .
96.
96. Payne DK , Anderson WM , Romero MD et al. Tracheoesophageal fistula formation in intubated patients. Risk factors and treatment with high-frequency jet ventilation . Chest1990; 98: 161-164 .
97.
97. Mathisen DJ , Grillo HC , Wain JC , Hilgenberg AD . Management of acquired nonmalignant fistula . Ann Thorac Surg1991; 52: 759-765 .
98.
98. Braidy J , Breton G , Clément L . Effect of corticosteroids on postintubation tracheal stenosis . Thorax1989; 44: 753-755 .
99.
99. Allan JS , Wright CD . Tracheoinnominate fistula: diagnosis and management . Chest Surg Clin N Am2003; 13: 331-341 .
100.
100. Cokis C , Towler S . Tracheo-innominate fistula after initial percutaneous tracheostomy . Anaesth Intensive Care2000; 28: 566-569 .
101.
101. Dyer RK , Fisher SR . Tracheal-innominate and tracheal-esophageal fistula. In Wolfe WG ed. Complications in thoracic surgery. St Louis: Mosby-Yearbook , 1992: 294-294.
102.
102. Cooper JD . Tracheo-innominate artery fistula: successful management of 3 consecutive patients . Ann Thorac Surg1977; 24: 439-447 .
103.
103. Nelms B . Tracheoarterial fistula. In Grillo HC , Eschapasse H eds. International trends in general thoracic surgery. Major challenges. Philadelphia: Saunders , 1987: 69-73.
104.
104. Gelman JJ , Aro M , Weiss SM . Tracheo-innominate artery fistula . J Am Coll Surg1994; 179: 626-634 .
106. Yang FY , Criado E , Schwartz JA et al. Trachea-innominate artery fistula retrospective comparison of treatment methods . South Med J1988; 81: 701-706 .
107.
107. Lawson DW , Grillo HC . Closure of persistent tracheal stomas . Surg Gynecol Obstet1970; 130: 995-996 .
108.
108. Shen KR , Mathisen DJ . Management of persistent tracheal stoma . Chest Surg Clin N Am2003; 13: 369-373 .
109.
109. Stanton DC , Kademani D , Patel C , Foote JW . Management of posttracheotomy scars and persistent tracheocutaneous fistulas with dermal interpositional fat graft . J Oral Maxillofac Surg2004; 62: 514-517 .
110.
110. Thomas A , Subramani K , Mitra S , Subramani S . Tracheal ring fracture- dislodgement after Blue Rhino percutaneous tracheostomy . Anaesthesia2003; 58: 1241-1241 .
111.
111. Osborne JE , Osman EZ , Cuddihy P , Ranta M . Tracheal ring heniation following percutaneous dilatational tracheostomy and its resection under endoscopic control . J Laryngol Otol1999; 113: 1116-1118 .
112.
112. Frosh A , Thomas ML , Weinbren J et al. Tracheal ring rupture and herniation during percutaneous dilatational tracheostomy identified by fibreoptic bronchoscopy . Rev Laryngol Otol Rhinol1997; 118: 179-180 .
113.
113. van Heurn LW , Theunissen PH , Ramsay G , Brink PR . Pathologic changes of the trachea after percutaneous dilatational tracheotomy . Chest1996; 109: 1466-1469 .
114.
114. Rello J , Sonora R , Jubert P et al. Pneumonia in intubated patients: role of respiratory airway care . Am J Respir Crit Care Med1996; 154: 111-115 .
115.
115. Bernhard WN , Cottrell JE , Sivakumaran C et al. Adjustment of intracuff pressure to prevent aspiration . Anesthesiology1979; 50: 363-363 .
116.
116. Stewart SL , Secrest JA , Norwood BR , Zachary R . A comparison of endotracheal tube cuff pressures using estimation techniques and direct intracuff measurement . Aana J2003; 71: 443-447 .
117.
117. Badenhorst C . Changes in tracheal cuff pressure during respiratory support . Crit Care Med1987; 15: 300-302 .
118.
118. Lee TS , Hsu D . Ischemic damage to the trachea: lateral wall pressure versus intracuff pressure . Crit Care Med1991; 19: 1328-1328 .
119.
119. Ganner C . The accurate measurement of endotracheal tube cuff pressures . Br J Nurs2001; 10: 1127-34 .
120.
120. Braz JR , Navarro LH , Takata IH , Nascimento Junior P . Endotracheal tube cuff pressure: need for precise measurement . Sao Paulo Med J1999; 117: 243-247 .
121.
121. Arola MK , Inberg MV , Puhakka H . Tracheal stenosis after tracheostomy and after orotracheal cuffed intubation . Acta Chir Scand1981; 147: 183-192 .
122.
122. Guyton D , Banner MJ , Kirby RR . High-volume, low-pressure cuffs. Are they always low-pressure?Chest1991; 100: 1076-1081 .
123.
123. Karasawa F , Mori T , Kawatani Y et al. Deflationary phenomenon of the nitrous oxide-filled endotracheal tube cuff after cessation of nitrous oxide administration . Anesth Analg2001; 92: 145-148 .
124.
124. Obier K , Haywood LJ . Enhancing therapeutic communications with acutely ill patients . Heart Lung1973; 2: 49-53 .
125.
125. Catala JC , Garcia Pedrajas F , Carrera J et al. Placement of an endotracheal device via the laryngeal mask airway in a patient with tracheal stenosis [letter] . Anesthesiology1996; 84: 239-240 .
126.
126. Albarran AW . A review of communication with intubated patients and those with tracheostomies within an intensive care environment . Intensive Care Nurs1991; 7: 179-186 .
127.
127. Leder SB . Importance of verbal communication for the ventilation dependent patient . Chest1990; 98: 792-793 .
128.
128. Bergbom-Engbert I , Haljamae H . Assessment of patients' experience of discomforts during respirator therapy . Crit Care Med1989; 17: 1068-1072 .
129.
129. Fitch M . Patient perceptions: being unable to speak on a ventilator . RRT1987; 23: 21-23 .
130.
130. Astrachan DI , Kirchner JC , Goodwin WJJ . Prolonged intubation vs tracheotomy: complications, practical and psychological considerations . Laryngoscope1988; 98: 1165-1169 .
131.
131. Heffner JE . Medical indications for tracheotomy . Chest1989; 96: 186-190 .
132.
132. Godwin JE , Heffner JE . Special critical care considerations in tracheostomy management . Clin Chest Med1991; 12: 573-583 .
133.
133. Shea SA , Hoit JD , Banzett RB . Competition between gas exchange and speech production in ventilated subjects . Biol Psychol1998; 49: 9-27 .
134.
134. Blom ED . Alternative methods of communication for intubated patients in critical care . Indiana Med1988; 81: 398-400 .
135.
135. Heffner JE . Care of the intensive care unit patient with a tracheotomy . Problems in Anesthesia1988; 2: 269-277 .
136.
136. Nomori H , Horio H , Suemasu K . Assisted pressure control ventilation via a mini-tracheostomy tube for postoperative respiratory management of lung cancer patients . Respir Med2000; 94: 214-220 .
137.
137. Bach JR . A comparison of long-term ventilatory support alternatives from the perspective of the patient and care giver . Chest1993; 104: 1702-1706 .
138.
138. Hoit JD , Lohmeier HL . Influence of continuous speaking on ventilation . J Speech Lang Hear Res2000; 43: 1240-1251 .
139.
139. Hoit JD , Banzett R . Simple adjustments can improve ventilator supported speech . Am J Speech-Lang Pathol1997; 6: 87-96 .
140.
140. Black JW , Grover BS . A hazard of pressure support ventilation . Chest1988; 93: 333-335 .
141.
141. Calderini E , Confalonieri M , Puccio PG et al. Patient-ventilator asynchrony during noninvasive ventilation: the role of expiratory trigger . Intensive Care Med1999; 25: 662-667 .
142.
142. Highcock MP , Shneerson JM , Smith IE . Functional differences in bi-level pressure preset ventilators . Eur Respir J2001; 17: 268-273 .
143.
143. Prigent H , Samuel C , Louis B et al. Comparative effects of two ventilatory modes on speech in tracheostomized patients with neuromuscular disease . Am J Respir Crit Care Med2003; 167: 114-119 .
144.
144. Levine SP , Koester DJ , Kett RL . Independently activated talking tracheostomy systems for quadriplegic patients . Arch Phys Med Rehabil1987; 68: 571-573 .
145.
145. Sparker AW , Robbins KT , Nevlud GN et al. A prospective evaluation of speaking tracheostomy tubes for ventilator dependent patients . Laryngoscope1987; 97: 89-92 .
146.
146. Leder SB , Traquina DN . Voice intensity of patients using a Communi-Trach I cuffed speaking tracheostomy tube . Laryngoscope1989; 99: 744-747 .
147.
147. Leder SB . Prognostic indicators for successful use of “talking” tracheostomy tubes . Perceptual Motor Skills1991; 73: 441-442 .
148.
148. Heffner JE , Miller KS , Sahn SA . Tracheostomy in the intensive care unit. Part 1: indications, technique, management . Chest1986; 90: 269-274 .
149.
149. Levy J , Abramson AL . Immediate verbal communication following laryngectomy . Bull NYAcad Med1983; 59: 306-312 .
150.
150. Adler JJ , Zeides J . Evaluation of the electrolarynx in the sort-term hospital setting . Chest1986; 89: 407-409 .
151.
151. Wu WH , Suh CW , Tumdorf H . Use of the artificial larynx during airway intubation . Crit Care Med1974; 2: 152-154 .
152.
152. Heffner JE . Tracheal intubation in mechanically ventilated patients . Clin Chest Med1988; 9: 23-35 .
153.
153. Siddarth P , Mazzarella L . Granuloma associated with fenestrated tracheostomy tubes . Am J Surg1985; 150: 279-280 .
154.
154. Criner G , Make B , Celli B . Respiratory muscle dysfunction secondary to chronic tracheostomy tube placement . Chest1987; 91: 139-141 .
156. Fornataro-Clerici L , Zajac DJ . Aerodynamic characteristics of tracheostomy speaking valves . J Speech Hear Res1993; 36: 529-532 .
157.
157. Leder SB . Perceptual rankings of speech quality produced with one-way tracheostomy speaking valves . J Speech Hear Res1994; 37: 1308-1312 .
158.
158. Dettelbach MA , Gross RD , Mahlmann J , Eibling DE . Effect of the Passy-Muir Valve on aspiration in patients with tracheostomy . Head Neck1995; 17: 297-302 .
159.
159. Elpem EH , Borkgren Okonek M , Bacon M et al. Effect of the Passy Muir tracheostomy speaking valve on pulmonary aspiration in adults . Heart Lung2000; 29: 287-293 .
160.
160. Nomori H . Tracheostomy tube enabling speech during mechanical ventilation . Chest2004; 125: 1046-1051 .
162. Torres A , Serra-Batlles J , Ros E et al. Pulmonary aspiration of gastric contents in patients receiving mechanical ventilation: the effect of body position . Ann Intern Med1992; 116: 540-543 .
163.
163. DeVita MA , Spierer-Rundback L . Swallowing disorders in patients with prolonged orotracheal intubation or tracheostomy tubes . Crit Care Med1990; 18: 1328-1330 .
164.
164. Pannunzio TG . Aspiration of oral feedings in patients with tracheostomies . AACN Clin Issues1996; 7: 560-569 .
165.
165. Bonanno PC . Swallowing dysfunction after tracheostomy . Ann Surg1971; 174: 29-33 .
166.
166. Donzelli J , Brady S , Wesling M , Craney M . Simultaneous modified Evans blue dye procedure and video nasal endoscopic evaluation of the swallow . Laryngoscope2001; 111: 1746-1750 .
167.
167. Higgins DM , Maclean JC . Dysphagia in the patient with a tracheostomy: six cases of inappropriate cuff deflation or removal (see comments) . Heart Lung1997; 26: 215-220 .
168.
168. Greenbaum DM . Decannulation of the tracheostomized patient . Heart Lung1976; 5: 119-123 .
169.
169. Rumbak MJ , Graves AE , Scott MP et al. Tracheostomy tube occlusion protocol predicts significant tracheal obstruction to air flow in patients requiring prolonged mechanical ventilation . Crit Care Med1997; 25: 413-417 .
170.
170. Ceriana P , Carlucci A , Navalesi P et al. Weaning from tracheotomy in long-term mechanically ventilated patients: feasibility of a decisional flowchart and clinical outcome . Intensive Care Med2003; 29: 845-848 .
171.
171. Heffner JE . The technique of weaning from tracheostomy. Criteria for weaning: practical measures to prevent failure . Journal of Critical Illness1995; 10: 729-731 .
172.
172. Paul F , Hendry C , Cabrelli L . Meeting patient and relatives' information needs upon transfer from an intensive care unit: the development and evaluation of an information booklet . J Clin Nurs2004; 13: 396-405 .
173.
173. Engoren M , Arslanian-Engoren C , Fenn-Buderer N . Hospital and long-term outcome after tracheostomy for respiratory failure . Chest2004; 125: 220-227 .
174.
174. Kurek CJ , Cohen IL , Lambrinos J et al. Clinical and economic outcome of patients undergoing tracheostomy for prolonged mechanical ventilation in New York state during 1993: analysis of 6,353 cases under diagnosis-related group 483 . Crit Care Med1997; 25: 983-988 .
175.
175. Leung R , MacGregor L , Campbell D , Berkowitz RG . Decannulation and survival following tracheostomy in an intensive care unit . Ann Otol Rhinol Laryngol2003; 112: 853-858 .
176.
176. Seneff MG , Wagner D , Thompson D et al. The impact of long-term acute-care facilities on the outcome and cost of care for patients undergoing prolonged mechanical ventilation . Crit Care Med2000; 28: 342-350 .
177.
177. Engoren M , Buderer NF , Zacharias A . Long-term survival and health status after prolonged mechanical ventilation after cardiac surgery . Crit Care Med2000; 28: 2742-2749 .
178.
178. Douglas SL , Daly BJ , Brennan PF et al. Outcomes of long term ventilator patients: a descriptive study . Am J Crit Care1997; 6: 99-105 .
179.
179. Freeman BD , Isabella K , Lin N , Buchman TG . A meta-analysis of prospective trials comparing percutaneous and surgical tracheostomy in critically ill patients . Chest2000; 118: 1412-1418 .
