Recent developments within the so-called Principles and Parameters model of
acquisition argue for a clear-cut separation of Universal Grammar (UG) principles
from parametric options and locate all parameters within functional categories
(Borer, 1984; Lebeaux, 1988; Chomsky, 1991). This has led Tsimpli and Roussou (1991)
to propose that adult L2 (second language) learners have access to UG principles but
do not reset the parameters of the L2, which amounts to saying that null subjects in
the adult Spanish L2 may or may not have the same status as native Spanish null
subjects, depending on the speakers’ L1 (first language) and the UG
principles at stake. In the case of L1 acquisition, Rizzi (1994) and Hyams (1994)
provide a competence account of null subjects in early child English which relate
them to adult English Diary Drop and German-style topic-drop rather than to
Spanish-style pro-drop. They specifically argue that these missing subjects
are restricted to the first position of non-wh root clauses and that fixing
the null subject parameter will consist of incorporating the ROOT=CP principle into
this grammar. In this paper, we analyse the Spanish L2 oral spontaneous data
produced by adult L1 speakers of pro-drop and topic-drop languages
in an attempt to provide a competence account of null subjects in adult nonnative
Spanish. Our data show that, unlike early English grammars,all the Spanish
non-native grammars contain null subjects both in matrix and subordinate clauses,
and that this is the case at the early and advanced stages. It also shows that many
non-native pronominal subjects do not have the same value as native Spanish subjects
and that subject pronouns are used for identification purposes. It is suggested that
these data provide evidence for a model of L2 acquisition where adult non-native
grammar construction resorts to a default licensing procedure which allows null
pronouns provided they can be identified.
Get full access to this article
View all access options for this article.
References
1.
Almoguera, R.
and
Lagunas, C.1993:El parámetro pro-drop en el español no
nativo. In
Liceras, J.M.
, editor,La lingüística y el análisis de
los sistemas no nativos,
Ottawa: Dovehouse
, 140–149.
2.
Bickerton, D.1990:Language and species.
Chicago: The University of Chicago Press
.
3.
Birdsong, D.1992:
Ultimate attainment in second language acquisition
. Language68,
706–755
.
4.
Bley-Vroman, R.1990:
The logical problem of foreign language learning
. Linguistic Analysis20,
1–49
.
5.
Borer, H.1984:Parametric syntax: case studies in Semitic and Romance
languages.
Dordrecht: Foris
.
6.
Brown, R.1973.A first language:the early stages.
Cambridge, MA:Harvard University Press
.
7.
Chomsky, N.1965:Aspects of the theory of syntax.
Cambridge, MA: MIT Press
.
8.
Chomsky, N.1981:Lectures on government and binding.
Dordrecht: Foris
.
9.
Chomsky, N.1986:Knowledge of language: its nature, origin, and use.
New York: Praeger
.
10.
Chomsky, N.1991: Some notes on economy of derivation and
representation. In
Freidin, R.
, editor,Principles and parameters in comparative grammar.
Cambridge, MA: MIT Press
, 417–454.
11.
Chomsky, N.1995:The minimalist program.
Cambridge, MA: MIT Press
.
12.
Clahsen, H.
and
Muysken, P.1986:
The availability of Universal Grammar to adult and child learners:a study
of the acquisition of German word order
.Second Language Research5,
1–29
.
13.
Clark, R.
and
Roberts, I.1993:
A computational model of language learnability and language change
.Linguistic Inquiry24,
299–345
.
14.
Díaz, L.
and
Liceras, J.M.
1990:
Formulación de parámetros y adquisición de
lenguas extranjeras.
In
Martín Vide, C.
, editor,Proceedings of the V Congress and Natural and Formal
Languages. Barcelona: Universidad de Barcelona, PPU.
15.
Díaz, L.
and
Liceras, J.M.1995:
Las gramáticas de la interlengua española
.Cuadernos Hispánicos de Amsterdam17,
135–156
.
16.
du Plessis, J.
,
Solin, D.
,
Travis, L.
and
White, L.1987:
UG or not UG, that is the question: a reply to Clahsen and Muysken
.Second Language Research3,
56–75
.
17.
Felix, S.
and
Weigl, W.1991.
Universal Grammar in the classroom: the effects of formal instruction on
second language acquisition
.Second Language Research7,
162–181
.
18.
Flynn, S.1987:A parameter-setting model of L2 acquisition: experimental
studies in anaphora.
Dordrecht: Reidel
.
19.
Haegeman, L.1990: Non-overt subjects in diary contexts. In
Mascaró, J.
and
Nespor, M.
editors,Grammar in progress. GLOW essays for Henk van Riesdijk.
Dordrecht: Foris
.
20.
Hilles, S.1986:
Interlanguage and the pro-drop parameter
.Second Language Research2,
33–52
.
21.
Hilles, S.1991:Access to Universal Grammar in second language
acquisition. In
Eubank, L.
, editor,Point/Counterpoint. Universal Grammar in the second
language.
Amsterdam: John Benjamins
, 305–338.
22.
Huang, C.L.1984:
On the distribution and reference of empty pronouns
. Linguistic Inquiry15,
531–574
.
23.
Hyams, N.1986:Language acquisition and the theory of parameters.
Dordrecht: Reidel
.
24.
Hyams, N.1989: The null subject parameter in language
acquisition. In
Jaeggli, O.
and
Safir, K.
,editors,The null subject parameter.
Dordrecht:Reidel
.
25.
Hyams, N.1994:V2 null arguments and COMP projections. In
Hoekstra, T.
and
Schwartz, B.
, editors,Language acquisition studies in generative grammar.
Amsterdam: John Benjamins
, 21–55.
26.
Hyams, N.
and
Wexler, K.1993:
On the grammatical basis of null subjects in child language
.Linguistic Inquiry24,
421–459
.
27.
Jaeggli, O.1982:Topics in Romance syntax.
Dordrecht: Foris
.
28.
Jaeggli, O.
and
Safir, K.1989:The null subject parameter.
Dordrecht. Reidel
.
29.
Jin, H.G.1994:
Topic-prominence and subject-prominence in L2 acquisition: evidence of
English-to-Chinese typological transfer
. Language Learning44,
101–122
.
30.
Karmiloff-Smith, A.1994: Innate constraints and developmental change. In
Bloom, P.
, editor,Language acquisition.
Cambridge, MA: MIT Press
, 563–590.
31.
Lakshmanan, U.1991: Morphological uniformity and null subjects in child second
language acquisition.In
Eubank,L.
,editor,Point/counterpoint. Universal Grammar in the second
language.
Amsterdam: John Benjamins
, 389–410.
32.
Lasnik, H.
and
Stowell, T.1991:
Weakest crossover
.Linguistic Inquiry22,
687–720
.
33.
Lebeaux, D. 1988: Language acquisition and the form of grammar. PhD
dissertation. University of Massachusetts, Amherst, MA.
34.
Liceras, J.M.1985:
The value of clitics in non-native Spanish
.Second Language Research1,
4–36
.
35.
Liceras, J.M.1986:Linguistic theory and second language acquisition: the Spanish
nonnative grammar of English speakers.
Tübingen: Gunter Narr
.
36.
Liceras, J.M.1988: Syntax and stylistics: more on the pro-drop
parameter. In
Pankhurst, J.
,
Sharwood-Smith, M.
and
Van Buren, P.
editors, Learnability and second languages,
Dordrecht: Foris
.
37.
Liceras, J.M.1989: On some properties of the pro-drop parameter: looking for
missing subjects in non-native Spanish. In
Gass, S.
and
Schachter, J.
, editors,Linguistic perspectives in second language acquisition.
Cambridge, MA: Cambridge University Press
.
38.
Liceras, J.M. 1994: La teoría gramatical y los principios que
regulan la adquisición del orden de palabras del español.
Paper read at the Primera Mesa Redonda de Lingüística
Española. Universidad Autónoma Metropolitana de
México, México.
39.
Liceras, J.M. forthcoming:La adquisición del lenguaje: a la
búsqueda de los principios y mecanismos que regulan la
adquisición del lenguaje no nativo. Madrid: Visor.
40.
Liceras, J.M.
and
Díaz, L.1998. On the nature of the relationship between morphology and
syntax:inflectional typology, f-features and null/overt pronouns in Spanish
interlanguage. In
Beck,M.L.
,editor,Morphology and its interfaces in second language knowledge.
Amsterdam: John Benjamins
, 307–337.
41.
Liceras, J.M.
,
Díaz, L.
and
Maxwell, D.1998: Null arguments in non-native grammars: the Spanish L2 of
Chinese, English, French, German, Japanese and Korean speakers. In
Klein, E.
and
Martohardjono, G.
, editors,The development of second language grammars. A generative
approach.
Amsterdam: John Benjamins
, 113–149.
42.
Liceras, J.M.
,
Díaz, L.
,
Maxwell, D.
,
Laguardia, B.
,
Fernández, Z.
and
Fernández, R.1997: A longitudinal study of Spanish non-native grammars: beyond
parameters. In
Pérez-Leroux, A.
and
Glass, W.
, editors,Contemporary perspectives on the acquisition of Spanish.
Sommerville: Cascadilla Press
, 99–132.
43.
Liceras, J.M.
,
Laguardia, B.
,
Fernández, Z.
,
Fernández, R.
and
Díaz, L.1998. Licensing and identification of null categories in Spanish
nonnative grammars. In
Lema, J.
and
Treviño, E.
, editors,Theoretical Analyses on Romance Languages,
Amsterdam: John Benjamins
, 263–282.
44.
Liceras, J.M.
,
Valenzuela, E.
and
Díaz, L.
1998.
Morphological paradigms and syntax: null and overt arguments in L1 and L2
acquisition of Spanish
.Proceedings of GASLA ’97.McGill Working Papers in
Linguistics, McGill University, Montreal.
45.
Lightfoot, D.1991:How to set parameters: arguments for language change.
Cambridge, MA: MIT Press
.
46.
Martohardjono, G.
and
Gair, J.1993. Apparent inaccessibility in second language acquisition:
misapplied principles or principle misapplications? In
Eckman, F.
, editor,Confluence: linguistics, L2 acquisition, and speech
pathology.
Amsterdam: John Benjamins
, 79–104.
47.
O’Grady, W.1991: Language acquisition and the pro-drop phenomenon: a
response to Hilles. In
Eubank, L.
, editor,Point/counterpoint. Universal Grammar in the second
language.
Amsterdam: John Benjamins
, 339–349.
48.
Ouhalla, J.1993:Functional categories and parametric variation.
London: Routledge
.
49.
Perlmutter, D.1971:Deep and surface structure constraints in syntax.
New York: Holt, Reinhart and Winston
.
50.
Phinney, M.1987: The pro-drop parameter in second language
acquisition. In
Roeper, Th
. and
Williams, E.
, editors,Parameter setting.
Dordrecht: Reidel
, 221–238.
51.
Piatelli-Palmarini, M.1989:
Evolution, selection, and cognition: from ‘learning’ to
parameter setting in biology and the study of language
. Cognition31,
1–44
.
52.
Pierce, A.1992:Language acquisition and syntactic theory.
Dordrecht: Kluwer
.
53.
Pinker, S.1994:The language instinct.
New York: William Morrow
.
54.
Pollock, J.-Y.1989:
Verb movement,UG and the structure of IP
.Linguistic Inquiry20,
365–424
.
55.
Register, N.1990:
Influences of typological parameters on L2 learners’ judgments of
null pronouns in English
.Language Learning40,
369–385
.
56.
Rizzi, L.1982:Issues in Italian syntax.
Dordrecht: Foris
.
57.
Rizzi, L.1986:
Null objects in Italian and the theory of pro
.Linguistic Inquiry17,
501–557
.
58.
Rizzi, L.1994: Early null subjects and root null subjects. In
Hoekstra, T.
and
Schwartz, B.
, editors,Language Acquisition Studies in Generative Grammar.
Amsterdam: John Benjamins
, 151–176.
59.
Roberge, Y.1986:
Subject doubling, free inversion and null argument languages
.Canadian Journal of Linguistics31,
54–79
.
60.
Roeper, Th.1993: The ‘least-effort’ principle in child
grammar: choosing a marked parameter. In
Reuland, E.
and
Abraham, W.
, editors, Knowledge and language I: From Orwell’s problem to
Plato’s problem.
Dordrecht: Kluwer
, 71–104.
61.
Roeper, Th.
and
Rohrbacher, B.1994.
Null subjects in early child English and the theory of economy of projection
.University of Pennsylvania Working Papers in Linguistics2,
83–119
.
62.
Roeper, Th.
and
Weissenborn, J.1990: How to make parameters work. In
Frazier, L.
and
de Villiers, J.
, editors,Language processing and language acquisition.
Dordrecht: Kluwer
, 147–162.
63.
Saah, K. 1994: Language acquisition and language processing in Akan. PhD
dissertation. University of Ottawa.
64.
Schachter, J.1988:
Second language acquisition and its relationship to Universal Grammar
.Applied Linguistics9,
219–235
.
65.
Speas, M.1994.
Null arguments in a theory of economy of projection
. University of Massachusetts Occasional Papers in Linguistics17,
179–208
.
66.
Sportiche, D.1996. Clitic constructions. In
Rooryck, J.
and
Zaring, L.
, editors,Phrase structure and the lexicon.
Dordrecht: Kluwer
, 213–276.
67.
Taraldsen, K.T.1980:On the nominative island condition, vacuous application and the
that-t race filter.
Bloomington, IN: Indiana Linguistics Club
.
68.
Tsimpli, I.-T.
and
Roussou, A.1991:
Parameter-resetting in L2?UCL Working Papers in Linguistics3,
149–169
.
69.
Valian, V.1991.
Syntactic subjects in the early speech of American and Italian children
.Cognition40,
21–81
.
70.
Wang, Q.
et al. 1992:
Null subject versus null object: some evidence from the acquisition of
Chinese and English
.Language Acquisition2:
221–254
.
71.
White, L.1985:
The pro-drop parameter in adult second language acquisition
.Language Learning35,
47–62
.
72.
White, L.1990:
Another look at the logical problem of foreign language learning: a reply
to Bley-Vroman
.Linguistic Analysis20,
50–63
.
73.
White, L.
and
Genesee, F.1996.
How native is near-native? The issue of ultimate attainment in adult second
language acquisition
.Studies in Second Language Acquisition12,
233–265
.
