The project setting was a remote rural county school district located in a mountain western state with some overrepresentation of English Learners (ELs) in special education. Referral issues are especially prominent in rural school systems due to continued challenges associated with limited resources and lack of contemporary professional development. This article describes the efforts of one rural school district to improve its referral process for ELs in grades K-5 implemented through a university-school district partnership. We developed and piloted a culturally responsive referral guide with findings, providing promising implications for appropriate referrals of ELs in rural county school districts.
Arnold,M. L., Newman,J. H., Gaddy,B. B., & Dean,C. B. (2005). A look at the condition of rural education research: Setting a direction for future research. Journal of Research in Rural Education,20(6), 1-25.
2.
Bronfenbrenner,U. (2005). Making human beings human: Bioecological perspectives on human development. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.
3.
Brown,C. L. (2004). Reducing the over-referral of culturally and linguistically diverse students (CLD) for language disabilities. NABE Journal of Research and Practice, 2(1), 225–243.
4.
Brown,J. E., & Doolittle,J., (2008). A cultural, linguistic, and ecological framework for response to intervention with English language learners. TEACHING Exceptional Children,40(5), 67-72.
5.
Brown,J. E., & Sanford,A. (2011). RTI for English language learners: Appropriately using screening and progress monitoring tools to improve instructional outcomes. National Center on Response to Intervention. Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Education, Office of Special Education Programs.
6.
Burton,M., & Johnson,A. S. (2010). “Where else would we teach?” Portraits of two teachers in the rural South. Journal of Teacher Education,61(4), 376-386.
7.
Clarke,S., & Wildy,H. (2011). Improving the small rural or remote school: The role of the district. Australian Journal of Education,55(1), 24-36.
Conroy,P. W. (2012). Collaborating with cultural and linguistically diverse families of students in rural schools who receive special education services. Rural Special Education Quarterly,31(3), 20-24.
10.
Creswell,J. W. (2013). Research design: Qualitative, quantitative, and mixed methods approaches (4th ed.). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.
11.
Dunn,M. W., Cole,C. M., & Estrada,A. (2009). Referral criteria for special education: General education teachers' perspectives in Canada and the United States of America. Rural Special Education Quarterly, 28(1), 28-38.
12.
Echevarria,J., Vogt,M. E., & Short,D. J. (2012). Making content comprehensible for English language learners: The SIOP model (3rd ed.). Boston, MA: Pearson.
13.
Garcia,S. B., & Ortiz,A. A. (2006). Preventing disproportionate representation: Culturally and linguistically responsive prereferral interventions. (NCCRESt Brief). Tempe, AZ: National Center for Culturally Responsive Educational Systems.
14.
Gay,G. (2010). Culturally responsive teaching: Theory, research, and practice. New York, NY: Teachers College Press.
Gutierrez,K., & Rogoff,B. (2003). Cultural ways of learning: Individual traits or repertoires of practice. Educational Researcher,32, 19-25.
17.
Hamayan,E., Marler,B., Sanchez-Lopez,C., & Damico,J. S. (2013). Special education considerations for English language learners: Delivering a continuum of services. Philadelphia, PA: Caslon, Inc.
18.
Hoover,J. J. (2009). Differentiating learning differences from disabilities: Meeting diverse needs through multi-tiered response to intervention. Boston, MA: Pearson.
19.
Hoover,J. J. (2012). Reducing unnecessary special education referrals of diverse learners: Guidelines for practitioners. TEACHING Exceptional Children,44(4), 38-47.
20.
Hoover,J. J., & Klingner,J. K. (2011). Promoting cultural validity in the assessment of bilingual special education students. In BasterraM., TrumbullE., & Solano-FloresG. (Eds.). Cultural Validity in Assessment: A Guide for Educators (pp. 210-235). New York, NY: Routledge.
21.
Hoover,J. J., Hopewell,S., & Sarris,J. (2014). Core ESL instructional practices (CEIP). Boulder, CO: BUENO Center, School of Education.
22.
Hopewell,S. (2011). Leveraging bilingualism to accelerate English reading comprehension. International Journal of Bilingual Education and Bilingualism, 14 (5), 603-620.
23.
Hosp,J. L., & Reschly,D. J. (2003). Referral rates for intervention or assessment: A meta-analysis of racial differences. Journal of Special Education,37(2), 67-80.
Johnson,J., Showalter,D., & Klein,R. (2014). Why rural matters 2013-14: The condition of rural education in the 50 states. Washington, DC: Rural School and Community Trust.
26.
Klingner,J. K., & Harry,B. (2006). The special education referral and decision-making process for English language learners: Child study team meetings and placement conferences. Teachers College Record, 108 (11), 2247–2281.
27.
Klingner,J., Hoover,J. J., & Baca,L. (Eds.). (2008). Why do English language learners struggle with reading: Language acquisition or learning disabilities? Thousand Oaks, CA: Corwin Press.
28.
Klingner,J. K., Soltero-Gonzalez,L., & Lesaux,N. (2010). Response to intervention for English language learners. In LipsonM. & WixsonK.(Eds.), Successful approaches to response to intervention (RTI): Collaborative practices for improving K-12 literacy (pp. 134-162). Newark, DE: International Reading Association.
29.
National Center on Response to Intervention (August, 2011). RTI considerations for English language learners (ELLs). Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Education, Office of Special Education Programs.
30.
Ortiz,A. A. (1997). Learning disabilities occurring concomitantly with linguistic differences. Journal of Learning Disabilities,30(3), 321–332.
31.
Ortiz,A. A. (2002). Prevention and early intervention. In ArtilesA. J. & OrtizA. A. (Eds.), English language learners with special education needs: Identification, assessment and instruction (pp. 31–48). Washington, DC: Center for Applied Linguistics and Delta Systems.
32.
Ortiz,A. A., & Artiles,A. J. (2010). Meeting the needs of ELLs with disabilities: A linguistically and culturally responsive model. In LiG. & EdwardsR. A. (Eds.) Best practices in ELL instruction (pp. 247-272). New York, NY: Guilford Press.
33.
Ortiz,A. A., Robertson,P. M., Wilkinson,C. Y., Liu,Y. J., McGhee,B. D., & Kushner,M. I. (2011). The role of bilingual education teachers in preventing inappropriate referrals of ELLs to special education: Implications for response to intervention, Bilingual Research Journal,34(3), 316-333.
34.
Robinson,G. R., Bursuck,W. D., & Sinclair,K. D. (2013). Implementing RTI in two rural elementary schools: Encouraging beginnings and challenges for the future. Rural Educator,34(3), 1-9.
35.
Rueda,R., & Windmueller,M. P. (2006). English language learners, LD, and overrepresentation: A multiple-level analysis. Journal of Learning Disabilities,39, 99-107.
36.
Shim,J. M. (2013). Involving the parents of English language learners in a rural area: Focus on the dynamics of teacher-parent interactions. Rural Educator,34(3), 18-26.
37.
Sorrells,A. M., Webb-Johnson,G., & Townsend,B. L. (2004). Multicultural perspectives in special education: A call for responsibility in research, practice, and teacher preparation. In SorrellsS. M., ReithJ. H., & SindelarP. T. (Eds.), Critical issues in special education (pp. 73–91). Boston, MA: Pearson Education.
38.
Stockard,J. (2011). Increasing reading skills in rural areas: An analysis of three school districts. Journal of Research in Rural Education,26(8), 1-19.
39.
Suarez-Morales,L., & Lopez,B. (2009). The impact of acculturative stress and daily hassles on pre-adolescent psychological adjustment: Examining anxiety symptoms. Journal of Primary Prevention,30(3-4), 335-49.
40.
Waterman,R., & Harry,B. (2008). Building collaboration between schools and parents of English language learners: Transcending barriers, creating opportunities. Arizona State University: National Center for Culturally Responsive Educational Systems (NCCRESt).
41.
Wenger,K. J., & Dinsmore,J. (2005). Preparing rural preservice teachers for diversity. Journal of Research in Rural Education,20(10), 1-15.
42.
Wenger,K. J., Dinsmore,J., & Villagómez,A. (2012). Teacher identity in a multicultural rural school: Lessons learned at Vista Charter. Journal of Research in Rural Education,27(5), 1-17.
