Two factors that may influence young adults’ cannabis use include having cannabis-using parents (CUP) and becoming parents themselves. These factors may differentially impact certain subgroups that are more likely to use cannabis (e.g., males, those with mental health conditions or living in states with legal nonmedical cannabis). This study examined intergenerational transmission of cannabis use across US young adult subgroups.
Methods:
We analyzed 2023 survey data among 4031 young adults (Mage = 26.29; 48.8% past-month cannabis use by design). Multivariable logistic regression examined whether participants had CUP and children in relation to past-month cannabis use, and the moderating effects of having CUP and children on other use-related factors, including sociodemographics (age, sex, race/ethnicity, education, relationship status), psychosocial factors (depression, anxiety disorder, and attention deficit hyperactivity disorder [ADHD] diagnoses; adverse childhood events [ACEs]), and state nonmedical cannabis legalization.
Results:
Having CUP (aOR = 2.90, 95% CI = 2.42, 3.47) and children (aOR = 1.37, 95% CI = 1.12, 1.67) were associated with cannabis use; however, a significant interaction indicated that having children was associated with use only among those without CUP. Living in legalized states and more ACEs were also related to cannabis use only in those without CUP. For participants with children (but not those without), having association between being male and use was stronger in those with (vs without) children. Other correlates included being older, sexual minority, Hispanic, Black, unmarried, and diagnosed with depression or ADHD.
Conclusion:
Given intergenerational influences on cannabis use and related disparities, interventions targeting parental use and related communication with children are needed.
Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services Administration. Key substance use and mental health indicators in the United States: Results from the 2023 National Survey on Drug Use and Health. Center for Behavioral Health Statistics and Quality, Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services Administration; July 30, 2024. Accessed September 29, 2024. https://www.samhsa.gov/data/release/2023-national-survey-drug-use-and-health-nsduh-releases#detailed-tables
PearsonMRLieseBSDvorakRD; Marijuana Outcomes Study Team. College student marijuana involvement: perceptions, use, and consequences across 11 college campuses. Addict Behav. 2017;66:83-89. doi:10.1016/j.addbeh.2016.10.019
5.
JordanCJAndersenSL.Sensitive periods of substance abuse: early risk for the transition to dependence. Dev Cogn Neurosci. 2017;25:29-44. doi:10.1016/j.dcn.2016.10.004
6.
RiouxCCastellanos-RyanNParentSVitaroFTremblayRESéguinJR.Age of cannabis use onset and adult drug abuse symptoms: a prospective study of common risk factors and indirect effects. Can J Psychiatry. 2018;63(7):457-464. doi:10.1177/0706743718760289
7.
Terry-McElrathYMPatrickMEO’MalleyPMJohnstonLD.Self-reported perceived negative consequences of marijuana use among US young adult users, 2008-2019. Addict Behav. 2022;124:107098. doi:10.1016/j.addbeh.2021.107098
BanduraA.Health promotion from the perspective of social cognitive theory. Psychol Health. 1998;13(4):623-649. doi:10.1080/08870449808407422
10.
BanduraA. Social Foundations of Thoughts and Action: A Social Cognitive Theory. Prentice-Hall, Inc.; 1986:617.
11.
BanduraA.Health promotion by social cognitive means. Health Educ Behav. 2004;31(2):143-164. doi:10.1177/1090198104263660
12.
BrookJSBalkaEBZhangCBrookDW.Intergenerational transmission of externalizing behavior. J Child Fam Stud. 2015;24:2957-2965.
13.
ChoB-Y.Associations of father’s lifetime cannabis use disorder with child’s initiation of cannabis use, alcohol use, and sexual intercourse by child gender. Subst Use Misuse. 2018;53(14):2330-2338.
14.
MadrasBKHanBComptonWMJonesCMLopezEIMcCance-KatzEF.Associations of parental marijuana use with offspring marijuana, tobacco, and alcohol use and opioid misuse. JAMA Netw Open. 2019;2(11):e1916015.
15.
OparaILardierJrDTReidRJGarcia-ReidP.“It all starts with the parents”: a qualitative study on protective factors for drug-use prevention among Black and Hispanic girls. Affilia. 2019;34(2):199-218.
16.
TiberioSSKerrDCBaileyJAHenryKLCapaldiDM.Intergenerational associations in onset of cannabis use during adolescence: a data synthesis approach. Psychol Addict Behav. 2020;34(8):877.
17.
MainaGOgenchukMGaudetS.Living with parents with problematic substance use: impacts and turning points. Public Health Nurs. 2021;38(5):730-737.
18.
Young-WolffKCFotiTRGreenA, et al. Perceptions about cannabis following legalization among pregnant individuals with prenatal cannabis use in California. JAMA Netw Open. 2022;5(12):e2246912.
19.
SiegerMHLHaswellR.Family treatment court-involved parents’ perceptions of their substance use and parenting. J Child Fam Stud. 2020;29(10):2811-2823.
20.
CuttlerCMischleyLKSextonM.Sex Differences in cannabis use and effects: a cross-sectional survey of cannabis users. Cannabis Cannabinoid Res. 2016;1(1):166-175. doi:10.1089/can.2016.0010
21.
ParentNCoulaudP-JAmirieMFerlatteOKnightR.Cannabis use and mental health among young sexual and gender minority men: a qualitative study. Int J Drug Policy. 2021;91:102980. doi:10.1016/j.drugpo.2020.102980
22.
KruegerEAFishJNUpchurchDM.Sexual orientation disparities in substance use: Investigating social stress mechanisms in a national sample. Am J Prev Med. 2020;58(1):59-68. doi:10.1016/j.amepre.2019.08.034
23.
MauroPMPhilbinMMGreeneERDiazJEAskariMSMartinsSS.Daily cannabis use, cannabis use disorder, and any medical cannabis use among US adults: associations within racial, ethnic, and sexual minoritized identities in a changing policy context. Prev Med Rep. 2022;28:101822. doi:10.1016/j.pmedr.2022.101822
24.
SchofieldKCuttlerCConnerBTPrinceMATeamAR.Pot at the end of the rainbow: cannabis use among sexual minorities. Cannabis Cannabinoid Res. 2023;8:942-948. doi:10.1089/can.2022.0240
25.
DyarC.A review of disparities in cannabis use and cannabis use disorder affecting sexual and gender minority populations and evidence for contributing factors. Curr Addict Rep. 2022;9:589-597.
26.
ConnollyDGilchristG.Prevalence and correlates of substance use among transgender adults: a systematic review. Addict Behav. 2020;111:106544. doi:10.1016/j.addbeh.2020.106544
27.
MontgomeryLDixonSManteyDS.Racial and ethnic differences in cannabis use and cannabis use disorder: implications for researchers. Curr Addict Rep. 2022;9(1):14-22.
28.
JeffersAMGlantzSByersAKeyhaniS.Sociodemographic characteristics associated with and prevalence and frequency of cannabis use among adults in the US. JAMA Netw Open. 2021;4(11):e2136571.
29.
GobbiGAtkinTZytynskiT, et al. Association of cannabis use in adolescence and risk of depression, anxiety, and suicidality in young adulthood: a systematic review and meta-analysis. JAMA Psychiatry. 2019;76(4):426-434.
30.
HengartnerMPAngstJAjdacic-GrossVRösslerW.Cannabis use during adolescence and the occurrence of depression, suicidality and anxiety disorder across adulthood: findings from a longitudinal cohort study over 30 years. J Affect Disord. 2020;272:98-103.
31.
NotzonDPPavlicovaMGlassA, et al. ADHD is highly prevalent in patients seeking treatment for cannabis use disorders. J Atten Disord. 2020;24(11):1487-1492.
32.
LezaLSiriaSLópez-GoñiJJFernandez-MontalvoJ.Adverse childhood experiences (ACEs) and substance use disorder (SUD): a scoping review. Drug Alcohol Depend. 2021;221:108563.
ComptonWMHanBJonesCMBlancoC.Cannabis use disorders among adults in the United States during a time of increasing use of cannabis. Drug Alcohol Depend. 2019;204:107468. doi:10.1016/j.drugalcdep.2019.05.008
35.
GoodmanSWadsworthELeos-ToroCHammondD. Prevalence and forms of cannabis use in legal vs. illegal recreational cannabis markets. Int J Drug Policy. 2020;76:102658. doi:10.1016/j.drugpo.2019.102658
36.
LeungJChanGStjepanovićDChungJYCHallWHammondD.Prevalence and self-reported reasons of cannabis use for medical purposes in USA and Canada. Psychopharmacology (Berl). 2022;239(5):1509-1519. doi:10.1007/s00213-021-06047-8
37.
KerrDCTiberioSSBaileyJAEpsteinMHenryKLCapaldiDM.Youth exposure to recreational cannabis legalization: moderation of effects by sex and parental cannabis use during adolescence. Subst Use Misuse. 2024;59(6):947-952.
38.
GoodwinRDKimJHCheslack-PostavaK, et al. Trends in cannabis use among adults with children in the home in the United States, 2004–2017: impact of state-level legalization for recreational and medical use. Addiction. 2021;116(10):2770-2778.
39.
EpsteinMBaileyJAKostermanRFurlongMHillKG.Evaluating the effect of retail marijuana legalization on parent marijuana use frequency and norms in US states with retail marijuana legalization. Addict Behav. 2020;111:106564.
40.
BergCJRommKFLoParcoCR, et al. Young adults’ experiences with cannabis retailer marketing and related practices: differences among sociodemographic groups and associations with cannabis use-related outcomes. J Racial Ethn Health Disparities. 2024. Published online July 15, 2024. doi:10.1007/s40615-024-02092-z
41.
CampbellSGreenwoodMPriorS, et al. Purposive sampling: complex or simple? Research case examples. J Res Nurs. 2020;25(8):652-661. doi:10.1177/1744987120927206
42.
FelittiVJAndaRFNordenbergD, et al. Relationship of childhood abuse and household dysfunction to many of the leading causes of death in adults: the Adverse Childhood Experiences (ACE) study. Am J Prev Med. 1998;14(4):245-258.
43.
SalvatoreJEGardnerCOKendlerKS.Marriage and reductions in men’s alcohol, tobacco, and cannabis use. Psychol Med. 2020;50(15):2634-2640.
44.
StaffJSchulenbergJEMaslowskyJ, et al. Substance use changes and social role transitions: Proximal developmental effects on ongoing trajectories from late adolescence through early adulthood. Dev Psychopathol. 2010;22(4):917-932.
45.
LarrouletPLoughranTAAugustynMBThornberryTPHenryKL.Intergenerational continuity and discontinuity in substance use: the role of concurrent parental marijuana use. J Dev Life Course Criminol. 2021;7(2):127-150. doi:10.1007/s40865-021-00159-7
46.
RothenbergWASternbergABlakeAWaddellJChassinLHussongA.Identifying adolescent protective factors that disrupt the intergenerational transmission of cannabis use and disorder. Psychol Addict Behav. 2020;34(8):864-876. doi:10.1037/adb0000511
47.
GaliKWinterSJAhujaNJFrankEProchaskaJJ.Changes in cannabis use, exposure, and health perceptions following legalization of adult recreational cannabis use in California: a prospective observational study. Subst Abuse Treat Prev Policy. 2021;16:16.
48.
CuiYLoParcoCRBar-ZeevY, et al. Theory-based correlates of cannabis use and intentions among US and Israeli adults: a mixed methods study. Subst Abuse Treat Prev Policy. 2023;18(1):54.
49.
VillanuevaLGomis-PomaresA.The cumulative and differential relation of adverse childhood experiences and substance use during emerging adulthood. Child Psychiatry Hum Dev. 2021;52(3):420-429.
50.
Lavie-AjayiMZivAPinsonH, et al. Recreational cannabis use and identity formation: a collective memory work study. World Leis J. 2022;64(4):325-341.
51.
KilweinTMWedellEHerchenroederLBravoAJLoobyA.A qualitative examination of college students’ perceptions of cannabis: insights into the normalization of cannabis use on a college campus. J Am Coll Health. 2022;70(3):733-741.
52.
GoodmanSHammondD.Perceptions of the health risks of cannabis: estimates from national surveys in Canada and the United States, 2018–2019. Health Educ Res. 2022;37(2):61-78.
53.
MooreJRChenQChoiNG.Cannabis use, use frequency, and use disorder in large metropolitan, small metropolitan, and nonmetropolitan areas. Drug Alcohol Depend. 2021;221:108631. doi:10.1016/j.drugalcdep.2021.108631
54.
GoossensJVan Den BrandenYVan der SluysL, et al. The prevalence of unplanned pregnancy ending in birth, associated factors, and health outcomes. Hum Reprod. 2016;31:2821-2833.
55.
TroutmanMRafiqueSPlowdenTC.Are higher unintended pregnancy rates among minorities a result of disparate access to contraception?Contracept Reprod Med. 2020;5(1):16. doi:10.1186/s40834-020-00118-5
56.
FangYLuoJBoeleMWindhorstDvan GriekenARaatH.Parent, child, and situational factors associated with parenting stress: a systematic review. Eur Child Adolesc Psychiatry. 2024;33(6):1687-1705. doi:10.1007/s00787-022-02027-1
57.
GlodoskyNCCuttlerC.Motives matter: cannabis use motives moderate the associations between stress and negative affect. Addict Behav. 2020;102:106188.
58.
WangDChoiJ-KShinJ.Long-term neighborhood effects on adolescent outcomes: mediated through adverse childhood experiences and parenting stress. J Youth Adolesc. 2020;49(10):2160-2173. doi:10.1007/s10964-020-01305-y
59.
VismaraLRollèLAgostiniF, et al. Perinatal parenting stress, anxiety, and depression outcomes in first-time mothers and fathers: a 3-to 6-months postpartum follow-up study. Front Psychol. 2016;7:938.
60.
OfferSSchneiderB.Revisiting the gender gap in time-use patterns: multitasking and well-being among mothers and fathers in dual-earner families. Am Sociol Rev. 2011;76(6):809-833. doi:10.1177/0003122411425170
61.
WindleMWindleRC.A prospective study of mutual influence for substance use among young adult marital dyads. Psychol Addict Behav. 2018;32(2):237.
62.
DopkeCRommKFBergCJ.Parental openness and communication regarding cannabis and alcohol use with their children. Am J Addict. 2024;33(1):15-25.
63.
SternbergAHillMLSukHWMeierMChassinL.Exploring cannabis-specific parenting as a mechanism of the intergenerational transmission of cannabis use and cannabis use disorder. J Stud Alcohol Drugs. 2019;80(1):32-41. doi:10.15288/jsad.2019.80.32
64.
HillMSternbergASukHWMeierMHChassinL.The intergenerational transmission of cannabis use: associations between parental history of cannabis use and cannabis use disorder, low positive parenting, and offspring cannabis use. Psychol Addict Behav. 2018;32(1):93-103. doi:10.1037/adb0000333
65.
KirisciLTarterRRidenourT, et al. Age of alcohol and cannabis use onset mediates the association of transmissible risk in childhood and development of alcohol and cannabis disorders: evidence for common liability. Exp Clin Psychopharmacol. 2013;21(1):38.
66.
UritsIGressKCharipovaK, et al. Cannabis use and its association with psychological disorders. Psychopharmacol Bull. 2020;50(2):56-67.
Supplementary Material
Please find the following supplemental material available below.
For Open Access articles published under a Creative Commons License, all supplemental material carries the same license as the article it is associated with.
For non-Open Access articles published, all supplemental material carries a non-exclusive license, and permission requests for re-use of supplemental material or any part of supplemental material shall be sent directly to the copyright owner as specified in the copyright notice associated with the article.
