Cocaine use disorder (CUD) is a significant and insufficiently studied public health issue, especially considering that the global prevalence of CUD is estimated to be higher than ever. There is still no consensus on effective treatments for CUD. Important barriers for research in the field include the high attrition levels observed in randomized controlled trials (RCTs) for CUD treatment and the lack of emphasis on methods to reduce attrition in CUD RCTs.
Methods:
The goal of this study was to systematically review over 2 decades of CUD RCTs, with the objective of evaluating the reporting of attrition bias and methods used to mitigate attrition.
Results:
Our scoping review extracted information from 106 RCTs, of which only 82 explicitly evaluated attrition as an outcome. Thirty-eight studies had an attrition rate above 50%, and five 16 studies had medium attrition bias, 6% to 19%. The remaining 68 had large attrition bias.
Conclusion:
Across all included studies, discussion of attrition as a limitation was uncommon. Overall, these analyses suggest that most RCTs evaluating CUD treatments have not adequately accounted for attrition in their analyses or employed approaches to mitigate attrition.
ShielsMSFreedmanNDThomasDBerrington de GonzalezA.Trends in US drug overdose deaths in non-Hispanic black, Hispanic, and non-Hispanic white persons, 2000-2015. Ann Intern Med. 2018;168(6):453-455. doi:10.7326/M17-1812
2.
Castaldelli-MaiaJMWangYPBrunoniAR, et al. Burden of disease due to amphetamines, cannabis, cocaine, and opioid use disorders in South America, 1990-2019: a systematic analysis of the Global Burden of Disease Study 2019. Lancet Psychiatry. 2023;10(1):85-97. doi:10.1016/S2215-0366(22)00339-X
3.
PeacockATranLTLarneyS, et al. All-cause and cause-specific mortality among people with regular or problematic cocaine use: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Addiction. 2021;116(3):725-742. doi:10.1111/add.15239
4.
SuenLWDavy-MendezTLeSaintKT, et al. Emergency department visits and trends related to cocaine, psychostimulants, and opioids in the United States, 2008–2018. BMC Emerg Med. 2022;22:19. doi:10.1186/s12873-022-00573-0
5.
Clinical Guideline Committee (CGC) Members; ASAM Team; AAAP Team; IRETA Team. The ASAM/AAAP Clinical Practice Guideline on the management of stimulant use disorder. J Addict Med. 2024;18(1S Suppl 1):1-56.
6.
TardelliVSBisagaAArcadepaniFBGerraGLevinFRFidalgoTM.Prescription psychostimulants for the treatment of stimulant use disorder: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Psychopharmacology (Berl). 2020;237(8):2233-2255. doi:10.1007/s00213-020-05563-3
7.
CrosbyRDPearsonVLEllerCWinegardenTGravesNL.Phenytoin in the treatment of cocaine abuse: a double-blind study. Clin Pharmacol Ther. 1996;59(4):458-468. doi:10.1016/S0009-9236(96)90116-2
8.
WangSVSchneeweissS, RCT-DUPLICATE Initiative. Emulation of randomized clinical trials with nonrandomized database analyses: results of 32 clinical trials. JAMA. 2023;329(16):1376-1385. doi:10.1001/jama.2023.4221
9.
FernandesHNMarcosCBKaszubowskiEGoulartLS.Evasão do tratamento da dependência de drogas: prevalência e fatores associados identificados a partir de um trabalho de Busca Ativa. Cad Saúde Colet. 2017;25(2):131-137.
10.
KrawczykNWilliamsARSalonerBCerdáM.Who stays in medication treatment for opioid use disorder? A national study of outpatient specialty treatment settings. J Subst Abuse Treat. 2021;126:108329. doi:10.1016/j.jsat.2021.108329
11.
XuKYHuangVWilliamsARMartinCEBazaziARGruczaRA.Co-occurring psychiatric disorders and disparities in buprenorphine utilization in opioid use disorder: an analysis of insurance claims. Drug Alcohol Depend Rep. 2023;9:100195. doi:10.1016/j.dadr.2023.100195
12.
LeeJDNunesEVJrNovoPBachrachKBaileyGLBhattS.Comparative effectiveness of extended-release naltrexone versus buprenorphine-naloxone for opioid relapse prevention (X: BOT): a multicentre, open-label, randomised controlled trial. Lancet. 2018;391(10118):309-318. doi:10.1016/S0140-6736(17)32812-x
13.
AjaziEMDasguptaNMarshallSW, et al. Revisiting the X: BOT naltrexone clinical trial using a comprehensive survival analysis. J Addict Med. 2022;16(4):440-446. doi:10.1097/ADM.0000000000000931
14.
JPTHigginsJThomasJChandler, et al., eds. Cochrane Handbook for Systematic Reviews of Interventions version 6.4. Cochrane; 2023. doi:10.1002/9781119536604
15.
HughesRAHeronJSterneJACTillingK.Accounting for missing data in statistical analyses: multiple imputation is not always the answer. Int J Epidemiol. 2019;48(4):1294-1304. doi:10.1093/ije/dyz032
16.
MunnZPetersMDJSternCTufanaruCMcArthurAAromatarisE.Systematic review or scoping review? Guidance for authors when choosing between a systematic or scoping review approach. BMC Med Res Methodol. 2018;18(1):143.
17.
CarrollKMNichCPetryNMEaganDAShiJMBallSA.A randomized factorial trial of disulfiram and contingency management to enhance cognitive behavioral therapy for cocaine dependence. Drug Alcohol Depend. 2016;160:135-142.
18.
NuijtenMBlankenPvan den WeteringBNuijtenBvan den BrinkWHendriksVM.Sustained-release dexamfetamine in the treatment of chronic cocaine-dependent patients on heroin-assisted treatment: a randomised, double-blind, placebo-controlled trial. Lancet. 2016;387(10029):2226-2234. doi:10.1016/S0140-6736(16)00205-1
19.
PetryNMAlessiSMBarryDCarrollKM.Standard magnitude prize reinforcers can be as efficacious as larger magnitude reinforcers in cocaine-dependent methadone patients. J Consult Clin Psychol. 2015;83(3):464-472. doi:10.1037/a0038522
20.
PetitjeanSADürsteler-MacFarlandKMKrokarMCStrasserJMuellerSEDegenB, et al. A randomized, controlled trial of combined cognitive-behavioral therapy plus prize-based contingency management for cocaine dependence. Drug Alcohol Depend. 2014;145:94-100.
21.
McKayJRVan HornDHLynchKG, et al. Who benefits from extended continuing care for cocaine dependence?Addict Behav. 2014;39(3):660-668. doi:10.1016/j.addbeh.2013.11.019
22.
PetryNMBarryDAlessiSMRounsavilleBJCarrollKM.A randomized trial adapting contingency management targets based on initial abstinence status of cocaine-dependent patients. J Consult Clin Psychol. 2012;80(2):276-285. doi:10.1037/a0026511
23.
PetryNMAlessiSMHansonTSierraS.Randomized trial of contingent prizes versus vouchers in cocaine-using methadone patients. J Consult Clin Psychol. 2007;75(6):983-991. doi:10.1037/0022-006X.75.6.983
24.
CirauloDAKnappCRotrosenJ, et al. Nefazodone treatment of cocaine dependence with comorbid depressive symptoms. Addiction. 2005;100(Suppl 1):23-31. doi:10.1111/j.1360-0443.2005.00984.x
25.
PetryNMMartinBSimcicF.Prize reinforcement contingency management for cocaine dependence: integration with group therapy in a methadone clinic. J Consult Clin Psychol. 2005;73(2):354-359. doi:10.1037/0022-006X.73.2.354
26.
WinhusenTMSomozaECHarrerJM, et al. A placebo-controlled screening trial of tiagabine, sertraline and donepezil as cocaine dependence treatments. Addiction. 2005;100:S68-77.
27.
HigginsSTSigmonSCWongCJ, et al. Community reinforcement therapy for cocaine-dependent outpatients. Arch Gen Psychiatry. 2003;60(10):1043-1052. doi:10.1001/archpsyc.60.9.1043
28.
MarloweDBKirbyKCFestingerDSMerikleEPTranGQPlattJJ.Day treatment for cocaine dependence: incremental utility over outpatient counseling and voucher incentives. Addict Behav. 2003;28(2):387-398. doi:10.1016/s0306-4603(01)00248-9
29.
RawsonRAHuberAMcCannM, et al. A comparison of contingency management and cognitive-behavioral approaches during methadone maintenance treatment for cocaine dependence. Arch Gen Psychiatry. 2002;59(9):817-824. doi:10.1001/archpsyc.59.9.817
30.
JohnsonBAChenRYSwannACSchmitzJLesserJRuizP, et al. Ritanserin in the treatment of cocaine dependence. Biol Psychiatry. 1997;42:932-940.
31.
SilvermanKHigginsSTBroonerRK, et al. Sustained cocaine abstinence in methadone maintenance patients through voucher-based reinforcement therapy. Arch Gen Psychiatry. 1996;53(5):409-415.
32.
MargolinAKostenTRAvantsSK, et al. A multicenter trial of bupropion for cocaine dependence in methadone-maintained patients. J Subst Abuse Treat. 2001;20(2):117-124.
33.
LevinFRMarianiJJPavlicovaM, et al. Extended-release mixed amphetamine salts and topiramate for cocaine dependence: a randomized clinical replication trial with frequent users. Drug Alcohol Depend. 2020;206:107700. doi:10.1016/j.drugalcdep.2019.107700
34.
CarrollKMNichCDeVitoEEShiJMSofuogluM.Galantamine and computerized cognitive behavioral therapy for cocaine dependence: a randomized clinical trial. J Clin Psychiatry. 2018;79(1):17m11669.
35.
LevinFRMarianiJJSpeckerS, et al. Extended-release mixed amphetamine salts vs placebo for comorbid adult attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder and cocaine use disorder: a randomized clinical trial. JAMA Psychiatry. 2015;72(6):593-602. doi:10.1001/jamapsychiatry.2015.41
36.
NuijtenMBlankenPvan den BrinkWHendriksV.Modafinil in the treatment of crack-cocaine dependence in the Netherlands: results of an open-label randomised controlled feasibility trial. J Psychopharmacol. 2015;29(6):678-687. doi:10.1177/0269881115582151
37.
TappAWoodAEKennedyASylversPKilziehNSaxonAJ.Quetiapine for the treatment of cocaine use disorder. Drug Alcohol Depend. 2015;149:18-24. doi:10.1016/j.drugalcdep.2014.12.037
38.
MancinoMJMcGaughJChopraMP, et al. Clinical efficacy of sertraline alone and augmented with gabapentin in recently abstinent cocaine-dependent patients with depressive symptoms. J Clin Psychopharmacol. 2014;34(2):234-239. doi:10.1097/JCP.0000000000000062
39.
NuijtenMBlankenPvan den BrinkWHendriksV.Treatment of crack-cocaine dependence with topiramate: a randomized controlled feasibility trial in The Netherlands. Drug Alcohol Depend. 2014;138:177-184. doi:10.1016/j.drugalcdep.2014.02.024
40.
UmbrichtADeFulioAWinstanleyEL, et al. Topiramate for cocaine dependence during methadone maintenance treatment: a randomized controlled trial. Drug Alcohol Depend. 2014;140:92-100. doi:10.1016/j.drugalcdep.2014.03.033
41.
HagedornHJNoorbaloochiSSimonAB, et al. Rewarding early abstinence in Veterans Health Administration addiction clinics. J Subst Abuse Treat. 2013;45(1):109-117.
42.
JohnsonBAAit-DaoudNWangXQ, et al. Topiramate for the treatment of cocaine addiction: a randomized clinical trial. JAMA Psychiatry. 2013;70(12):1388-1396.
43.
KampmanKMPettinatiHMLynchKGSprattKWierzbickiMRO’BrienCP.A double-blind, placebo-controlled trial of topiramate for the treatment of comorbid cocaine and alcohol dependence. Drug Alcohol Depend. 2013;133(1):94-99. doi:10.1016/j.drugalcdep.2013.05.026
44.
SomozaECWinshipDGorodetzkyCW, et al. A multisite, double-blind, placebo-controlled clinical trial to evaluate the safety and efficacy of vigabatrin for treating cocaine dependence. JAMA Psychiatry. 2013;70(6):630-637.
45.
McKayJRVan HornDHIveyMDrapkinMLRennertLLynchKG.Enhanced continuing care provided in parallel to intensive outpatient treatment does not improve outcomes for patients with cocaine dependence. J Stud Alcohol Drugs. 2013;74(4):642-651. doi:10.15288/jsad.2013.74.642
46.
DackisCAKampmanKMLynchKG, et al. A double-blind, placebo-controlled trial of modafinil for cocaine dependence. J Subst Abuse Treat. 2012;43(3):303-312.
47.
García-FernándezGSecades-VillaRGarcía-RodríguezOSánchez-HervásEFernández-HermidaJRHigginsST.Adding voucher-based incentives to community reinforcement approach improves outcomes during treatment for cocaine dependence. Am J Addict. 2011;20(5):456-461. doi:10.1111/j.1521-0391.2011.00154.x
48.
SchottenfeldRSMooreBPantalonMV.Contingency management with community reinforcement approach or twelve-step facilitation drug counseling for cocaine-dependent pregnant women or women with young children. Drug Alcohol Depend. 2011;118:48-55.
49.
WinstanleyELBigelowGESilvermanKJohnsonREStrainEC.A randomized controlled trial of fluoxetine in the treatment of cocaine dependence among methadone-maintained patients. J Subst Abuse Treat. 2011;40:255-64.
50.
BrodieJDCaseBGFigueroaE, et al. Randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled trial of vigabatrin for the treatment of cocaine dependence in Mexican parolees. Am J Psychiatry. 2009;166(11):1269-1277.
51.
Garcia-RodriguezOSecades-VillaRHigginsST, et al. Effects of voucher-based intervention on abstinence and retention in an outpatient treatment for cocaine addiction: a randomized controlled trial. Exp Clin Psychopharmacol. 2009;17(3):131-138.
52.
MooneyMEHerinDVSchmitzJMMoukaddamNGreenCEGrabowskiJ.Effects of oral methamphetamine on cocaine use: a randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled trial. Drug Alcohol Depend. 2009;101:34-41.
53.
LoeblTAngaritaGAPachasGN, et al. A randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled trial of long-acting risperidone in cocaine-dependent men. J Clin Psychiatry. 2008;69(3):480-486.
54.
PettinatiHMKampmanKMLynchKG, et al. A double-blind, placebo-controlled trial that combines disulfiram and naltrexone for treating co-occurring cocaine and alcohol dependence. Addict Behav. 2008;33(5):651-667. doi:10.1016/j.addbeh.2007.12.009
55.
ShoptawSHeinzerlingKGRotheram-FullerE, et al. Bupropion hydrochloride versus placebo, in combination with cognitive behavioral therapy, for the treatment of cocaine abuse/dependence. J Addict Dis. 2008;27:13-23.
56.
GhitzaUEEpsteinDHSchmittnerJVahabzadehMLinJLPrestonKL.Randomized trial of prize-based reinforcement density for simultaneous abstinence from cocaine and heroin. J Consult Clin Psychol. 2007;75(5):765-774.
57.
GonzalezGDesaiRSofuogluM, et al. Clinical efficacy of gabapentin versus tiagabine for reducing cocaine use among cocaine dependent methadone treated patients. Drug Alcohol Depend. 2007;87(1):1-9.
58.
LevinFREvansSMBrooksDJGarawiF.Treatment of cocaine dependent treatment seekers with adult ADHD: double-blind comparison of methylphenidate and placebo. Drug Alcohol Depend. 2007;87(1):20-29. doi:10.1016/j.drugalcdep.2006.07.004
59.
McKeeSACarrollKMSinhaR, et al. Enhancing brief cognitive-behavioral therapy with motivational enhancement techniques in cocaine users. Drug Alcohol Depend. 2007;91(1):97-101.
60.
WinhusenTSomozaESarid-SegalO, et al. A double-blind, placebo-controlled trial of reserpine for the treatment of cocaine dependence. Drug Alcohol Depend. 2007;91(2-3):205-12.
61.
ElkashefAFudalaPJGorgonL, et al. Double-blind, placebo-controlled trial of selegiline transdermal system (STS) for the treatment of cocaine dependence. Drug Alcohol Depend. 2006;85:191-197.
62.
PetryNMAlessiSMCarrollKM, et al. Contingency management treatments: reinforcing abstinence versus adherence with goal-related activities. J Consult Clin Psychol. 2006;74(3):592-601. doi:10.1037/0022-006X.74.3.592
63.
PeirceJMPetryNMStitzerML, et al. Effects of lower-cost incentives on stimulant abstinence in methadone maintenance treatment: a National Drug Abuse Treatment Clinical Trials Network study. Arch Gen Psychiatry. 2006;63(2):201-208. doi:10.1001/archpsyc.63.2.201
64.
PolingJOlivetoAPetryN, et al. Six-month trial of bupropion with contingency management for cocaine dependence in a methadone-maintained population. Arch Gen Psychiatry. 2006;63(2):219-228. doi:10.1001/archpsyc.63.2.219
65.
CirauloDASarid-SegalOKnappCM, et al. Efficacy screening trials of Paroxetine, Pentoxifylline, Riluzole, Pramipexole, and Venlafaxine in cocaine dependence. Addiction. 2005;100(Suppl 1):12-22.
66.
DackisCAKampmanKMLynchKGPettinatiHMO’BrienCP.A double-blind, placebo-controlled trial of modafinil for cocaine dependence. Neuropsychopharmacology. 2005;30(1):205-211. doi:10.1038/sj.npp.1300600
67.
Lambert PassosSRBastos CamachoLALopezCSBorges dos SantosMA.Nefazodone in out-patient treatment of inhaled cocaine dependence: a randomised double-blind placebo controlled trial. Addiction. 2005;100:489-494.
68.
MalcolmRLaRoweSCochranK, et al. A controlled trial of amlodipine for cocaine dependence: a negative report. J Subst Abuse Treat. 2005;28(2):197-204. doi:10.1016/j.jsat.2004.12.006
69.
McDowellDNunesEVSeraciniAM, et al. Desipramine treatment of cocaine-dependent patients with depression: a placebo-controlled trial. Drug Alcohol Depend. 2005;80(2):209-221. doi:10.1016/j.drugalcdep.2005.03.026
70.
PetryNMPeirceJMStitzerML, et al. Effect of prize-based incentives on outcomes in stimulant abusers in outpatient psychosocial treatment programs: a national drug abuse treatment clinical trials network study. Arch Gen Psychiatry. 2005;62(10):1148-1156. doi:10.1001/archpsyc.62.10.1148
71.
GrabowskiJRhoadesHStottsA, et al. Agonist-like or antagonist-like treatment for cocaine dependence with methadone for heroin dependence: two double-blind randomized clinical trials. Neuropsychopharmacology. 2004;29(6):969-981.
72.
JonesHEJohnsonREBigelowGESilvermanKMudricTStrainEC.Safety and efficacy of L-tryptophan and behavioral incentives for treatment of cocaine dependence: a randomized clinical trial. Am J Addict. 2004;13(5):421-437. doi:10.1080/10550490490512753
73.
PetryNMTedfordJAustinMNichCCarrollKMRounsavilleBJ.Prize reinforcement contingency management for treating cocaine users: how low can we go, and with whom?Addiction. 2004;99(3):349-360. doi:10.1111/j.1360-0443.2003.00642.x
74.
CampbellJNickelEJPenickEC, et al. Comparison of desipramine or carbamazepine to placebo for crack cocaine-dependent patients. Am J Addict. 2003;12(2):122-136.
75.
SchubinerHSaulesKKArfkenCL, et al. Double-blind placebo-controlled trial of methylphenidate in the treatment of adult ADHD patients with comorbid cocaine dependence. Exp Clin Psychopharmacol. 2002;10:286-294.
76.
CornishJWMaanyIFudalaPJEhrmanRNRobbinsSJO’BrienCP.A randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled study of ritanserin pharmacotherapy for cocaine dependence. Drug Alcohol Depend. 2001;61(2):183-189.
77.
GrabowskiJRhoadesHSchmitzJ, et al. Dextroamphetamine for cocaine-dependence treatment: a double-blind randomized clinical trial. J Clin Psychopharmacol. 2001;21(6):522-526.
78.
SchmitzJMStottsALRhoadesHM, et al. Naltrexone and relapse prevention treatment for cocaine-dependent patients. Addict Behav. 2001;26(2):167-180. doi:10.1016/s0306-4603(00)00098-8
79.
SchmitzJMAverillPStottsAL, et al. Fluoxetine treatment of cocaine-dependent patients with major depressive disorder. Drug Alcohol Depend. 2001;63:207-214.
80.
HigginsSTWongCJBadgerGJOgdenDEHDantonaRL.Contingent reinforcement increases cocaine abstinence during outpatient treatment and 1 year of follow-up. J Consult Clin Psychol. 2000;68(1):64-72.
81.
MalcolmRKajdaszDKHerronJAntonRFBradyKT.A double-blind, placebo-controlled outpatient trial of Pergolide for cocaine dependence. Drug Alcohol Depend. 2000;60(2):161-168.
82.
Crits-ChristophPSiquelandLBlaineJ, et al. Psychosocial treatments for cocaine dependence: National Institute of Drug Abuse Collaborative Cocaine Treatment Study. Arch Gen Psychiatry. 1999;56(6):493-502.
83.
KirbyKCMarloweDBLambRJPlattJJ.Schedule of voucher delivery influences initiation of cocaine abstinence. J Consult Clin Psychol. 1998;66(5):761-767.
84.
GrabowskiJRoacheJDSchmitzJMRhoadesHCresonDKorszunA.Replacement medication for cocaine dependence: methylphenidate. J Clin Psychopharmacol. 1997;17(6):485-488.
85.
HalikasJACrosbyRDPearsonVLGravesNM.A randomized double-blind study of carbamazepine in the treatment of cocaine abuse. Clin Pharmacol Ther. 1997;62(1):89-105. doi:10.1016/S0009-9236(97)90155-7
86.
BatkiSLWashburnAMDelucchiKJonesRT.A controlled trial of fluoxetine in crack cocaine dependence. Drug Alcohol Depend. 1996;41(2):137-142.
KampmanKVolpicelliAAltermanA, et al. Amantadine in the early treatment of cocaine dependence: a double-blind, placebo-controlled trial. Drug Alcohol Depend. 1996;41:25-33.
89.
CornishJWMannyIFudalaPJ, et al. Carbamazepine treatment for cocaine dependence. Drug Alcohol Depend. 1995;38(3):221-227.
90.
CarrollKMRounsavilleBJGordonLT, et al. Psychotherapy and pharmacotherapy for ambulatory cocaine abusers. Arch Gen Psychiatry. 1994;51(3):177-187.
91.
HigginsSTBudneyAJBickelWKFoergFEDonhamRBadgerGJ.Incentives improve outcome in outpatient behavioral treatment of cocaine dependence. Arch Gen Psychiatry. 1994;51(July):568-576.
92.
MontoyaIDLevinFRFudalaPJGorelickDA.Double-blind comparison of carbamazepine and placebo for treatment of cocaine dependence. Drug Alcohol Depend. 1995;38(3):213-219.
93.
ArndtIODorozynskyLWoodyGEMcLellanATO’BrienCP.Desipramine treatment of cocaine dependence in methadone-maintained patients. Arch Gen Psychiatry. 1992;49(11):888-893.
94.
KostenTRMorganCMFalcioneJSchottenfeldRS.Pharmacotherapy for cocaine-abusing methadone-maintained patients using amantadine or desipramine. Arch Gen Psychiatry. 1992;49(11):894-898.
95.
WeddingtonWWJrBrownBSHaertzenCA, et al. Comparison of amantadine and desipramine combined with psychotherapy for treatment of cocaine dependence. Am J Drug Alcohol Abuse. 1991;17(2):137-152. doi:10.3109/00952999108992817
96.
CarrollKMFentonLRBallSA, et al. Efficacy of disulfiram and cognitive behavioral therapy in cocaine-dependent outpatients. Arch Gen Psychiatry. 2004;61(3):264-272.
97.
CoviLHessJMKreiterNAHaertzenCA.Effects of combined fluoxetine and counseling in the outpatient treatment of cocaine abusers. Am J Drug Alcohol Abuse. 1995;21(3):327-344.
98.
KranzlerHRBauerLOHershDKlinghofferV.Carbamazepine treatment of cocaine dependence: a placebo-controlled trial. Drug Alcohol Depend. 1995;38(3):203-211.
99.
NunesEVMcGrathPJQuitkinFM, et al. Imipramine treatment of cocaine abuse: possible boundaries of efficacy. Drug Alcohol Depend. 1995;39(3):185-195.
100.
ReidMSCasadontePBakerS, et al. A placebo-controlled screening trial of olanzapine, valproate, and coenzyme Q10/L-carnitine for the treatment of cocaine dependence. Addiction. 2005;100(Suppl 1):43-57.
101.
SchmitzJMLindsayJAGreenCE, et al. High-dose naltrexone therapy for cocaine-alcohol dependence. Am J Addict. 2009;18(5):356-362. doi:10.3109/10550490903077929
102.
SchmitzJMLindsayJAStottsAL, et al. Contingency management and levodopa-carbidopa for cocaine treatment: a comparison of three behavioral targets. Exp Clin Psychopharmacol. 2010;18(3):238-244. doi:10.1037/a0019195
103.
SchmitzJMRathnayakaNGreenCE, et al. Combination of Modafinil and d-Amphetamine for the treatment of cocaine dependence: a preliminary investigation. Front Psychiatry. 2012;3:77. doi:10.3389/fpsyt.2012.00077
104.
FestingerDSDugoshKLKirbyKCSeymourBL. Contingency management for cocaine treatment: cash vs. vouchers. J Subst Abuse Treat. 2014;47(2):168-174.
105.
KampmanKMLynchKGPettinatiHM, et al. A double blind, placebo-controlled trial of Modafinil for the treatment of cocaine dependence without co-morbid alcohol dependence. Drug Alcohol Depend. 2015;155:105-110. doi:10.1016/j.drugalcdep.2015.08.005
106.
PetryNMAlessiSMRashCJ.A randomized study of contingency management in cocaine-dependent patients with severe and persistent mental health disorders. Drug Alcohol Depend. 2013;130(1-3):234-237. doi:10.1016/j.drugalcdep.2012.10.017
107.
SchmitzJMGreenCEStottsAL, et al. A two-phased screening paradigm for evaluating candidate medications for cocaine cessation or relapse prevention: modafinil, levodopa-carbidopa, naltrexone. Drug Alcohol Depend. 2014;136:100-107. doi:10.1016/j.drugalcdep.2013.12.015
108.
Secades-VillaRGarcía-FernándezGPeña-SuárezE, et al. Contingency management is effective across cocaine-dependent outpatients with different socioeconomic status. J Subst Abuse Treat. 2013;44(3):349-354. doi:10.1016/j.jsat.2012.08.018
109.
BergerSPWinhusenTMSomozaEC, et al. A medication screening trial evaluation of reserpine, gabapentin and lamotrigine pharmacotherapy of cocaine dependence. Addiction. 2005;100(Suppl 1):58-67. doi:10.1111/j.1360-0443.2005.00983.x
110.
BisagaAAharonovichEGarawiF, et al. A randomized placebo-controlled trial of gabapentin for cocaine dependence. Drug Alcohol Depend. 2006;81(3):267-274. doi:10.1016/j.drugalcdep.2005.07.009
111.
GonzalezVMSchmitzJMDeLauneKA.The role of homework in cognitive-behavioral therapy for cocaine dependence. J Consult Clin Psychol. 2006;74(3):633-637. doi:10.1037/0022-006X.74.3.633
112.
GrabowskiJSchmitzJRoacheJRhoadesHElkRCresonD.Methylphenidate (MP) for initial treatment of cocaine dependence and a model formed medication evaluation. NIDA Res Monogr. 1994;141:436-436.
113.
HallSMTunisSTriElemanE, et al. Continuity of care and desipramine in primary cocaine abusers. J Nerv Ment Dis. 1994;182(10):570-575.
114.
HamiltonJDNguyenQXGerberRMRubioNB.Olanzapine in cocaine dependence: a double-blind, placebo-controlled trial. Am J Addict. 2009;18(1):48-52.
115.
JonesHEHaugNAStitzerMLSvikisDS.Improving treatment outcomes for pregnant drug-dependent women using low-magnitude voucher incentives. Addict Behav. 2000;25(2):263-267. doi:10.1016/s0306-4603(98)00119-1
116.
McKayJRDrapkinMLVan HornDH, et al. Effect of patient choice in an adaptive sequential randomization trial of treatment for alcohol and cocaine dependence. J Consult Clin Psychol. 2015;83(6):1021-1032. doi:10.1037/a0039534
117.
SchmitzJMStottsALSayreSL, et al. Treatment of cocaine-alcohol dependence with naltrexone and relapse prevention therapy. Am J Addict. 2004;13(4):333-341. doi:10.1080/10550490490480982
118.
SilvermanKWongCJUmbricht-SchneiterA, et al. Broad beneficial effects of cocaine abstinence reinforcement among methadone patients. J Consult Clin Psychol. 1998;66(5):811-824.
119.
SchneiderRMittelmeierCGadishD.Day versus inpatient treatment for cocaine dependence: an experimental comparison. J Ment Health Adm. 1996;23(2):234-245. doi:10.1007/BF02519114
120.
DumvilleJCTorgersonDJHewittCE.Reporting attrition in randomised controlled trials. BMJ. 2006;332(7547):969-971. doi:10.1136/bmj.332.7547.969
121.
AklEABrielMYouJJ, et al. Potential impact on estimated treatment effects of information lost to follow-up in randomised controlled trials (LOST-IT): systematic review. BMJ. 2012;344:e2809. doi:10.1136/bmj.e2809
122.
NunesLNKluckMMFachelJMG. Comparison of simple and multiple imputation methods using a risk model for surgical mortality as example. Rev Bras Epidemiol. 2010;13(4):535-547. doi:10.1590/S1415-790X2010000400005
123.
LiPStuartEAAllisonDB.Multiple imputation: a flexible tool for handling missing data. JAMA. 2015;314(18):1966-1967. doi:10.1001/jama.2015.15281
124.
AustinPCWhiteIRLeeDSvan BuurenS.Missing data in clinical research: a tutorial on multiple imputation. Can J Cardiol. 2021;37(9):1322-1331. doi:10.1016/j.cjca.2020.11.010
125.
LewinABrondeelRBenmarhniaTThomasFChaixB.Attrition bias related to missing outcome data: a longitudinal simulation study. Epidemiology. 2018;29(1):87-95. doi:10.1097/EDE.0000000000000755
126.
BentzleyBSHanSSNeunerSHumphreysKKampmanKMHalpernCH.Comparison of treatments for cocaine use disorder among adults: a systematic review and meta-analysis. JAMA Netw Open. 2021;4(5):e218049. doi:10.1001/jamanetworkopen.2021.8049
127.
BhattacharyaIJohnsonBAArtmanWJ, et al. A non-parametric Bayesian approach for adjusting partial compliance in sequential decision-making. Stat Med. 2023;42(15):2661-2691. doi:10.1002/sim.9742
128.
PeiyiLMackS.Testing the missingness mechanism in longitudinal surveys: a case study using the Health and Retirement Study. Int J Soc Res Methodol. 2023;26(4):439-452. doi:10.1080/13645579.2022.2049509
129.
WardenDRushAJCarmodyTJ, et al. Predictors of attrition during one year of depression treatment: a roadmap to personalized intervention. J Psychiatr Pract. 2009;15(2):113-24. doi:10.1097/01.pra.0000348364.88676.83
130.
TardelliVSLagoMPPDMendezMBisagaAFidalgoTM.Contingency management with pharmacologic treatment for stimulant use disorders: a review. Behav Res Ther. 2018;111:57-63. doi:10.1016/j.brat.2018.10.002
131.
PetryNM.Contingency management treatments: controversies and challenges. Addiction. 2010;105(9):1507-1509. doi:10.1111/j.1360-0443.2009.02879.x
132.
StewartACCossarRWalkerS, et al. Strategies to maximize study retention and limit attrition bias in a prospective cohort study of men reporting a history of injecting drug use released from prison: the prison and transition health study. BMC Med Res Methodol. 2021;21:185. doi:10.1186/s12874-021-01380-0
133.
StaigerPKO’DonnellRLiknaitzkyP, et al. Mobile apps to reduce tobacco, alcohol, and illicit drug use: systematic review of the first decade. J Med Internet Res. 2020;22(11):e17156. doi:10.2196/17156
134.
Obuobi-DonkorGShalabyRVuongW, et al. Effects of Text4Hope-Addiction Support Program on cravings and mental health symptoms: results of a longitudinal cross-sectional study. JMIR Form Res. 2023;7:e40440. doi:10.2196/40440
135.
D’SouzaDCCortes-BrionesJCreaturaG, et al. Efficacy and safety of a fatty acid amide hydrolase inhibitor (PF-04457845) in the treatment of cannabis withdrawal and dependence in men: a double-blind, placebo-controlled, parallel group, phase 2a single-site randomised controlled trial. Lancet Psychiatry. 2019;6(1):35-45. doi:10.1016/S2215-0366(18)30427-9
136.
GrayJCTreloar PadovanoHWemmSEMirandaR.Predictors of topiramate tolerability in heavy cannabis–using adolescents and young adults: a secondary analysis of a randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled trial. J Clin Psychopharmacol. 2018;38(2):134-137.
137.
HallgrenKAWitkiewitzK.Missing data in alcohol clinical trials: a comparison of methods. Alcohol Clin Exp Res. 2013;37(12):2152-2160. doi:10.1111/acer.12205
138.
SzymczynskaPWalshSGreenbergLPriebeS.Attrition in trials evaluating complex interventions for schizophrenia: systematic review and meta-analysis. J Psychiatr Res. 2017;90:67-77. doi:10.1016/j.jpsychires.2017.02.009
139.
HernánMARobinsJM.Using big data to emulate a target trial when a randomized trial is not available. Am J Epidemiol. 2016;183(8):758-764. doi:10.1093/aje/kwv254
140.
HernánMAWangWLeafDE.Target trial emulation: a framework for causal inference from observational data. JAMA. 2022;328(24):2446-2447. doi:10.1001/jama.2022.21383
Supplementary Material
Please find the following supplemental material available below.
For Open Access articles published under a Creative Commons License, all supplemental material carries the same license as the article it is associated with.
For non-Open Access articles published, all supplemental material carries a non-exclusive license, and permission requests for re-use of supplemental material or any part of supplemental material shall be sent directly to the copyright owner as specified in the copyright notice associated with the article.
