Abstract
Engagement in organized physical activities offers numerous benefits for autistic people, yet persistent barriers hinder participation, especially as individuals age. This Australian study employed a mixed methods approach to investigate the experiences of organized physical activities among 103 autistic adults and 169 parents of autistic children. Although most autistic children were involved in such activities, participation significantly declined among autistic adults, with both groups expressing a desire for increased involvement. This research identified barriers spanning intrapersonal (anxiety, physical challenges), interpersonal (social communication difficulties), and societal (limited inclusive opportunities, insufficient autism awareness) domains. Key facilitators to enhanced participation included sensory accommodations, inclusive policies, improved accessibility, personalized coaching, and enhanced autism education for staff. These findings are consistent with international research and hold particular relevance within the Australian cultural context. This study represents a significant empirical contribution, shedding light on the intricate barriers and potential support mechanisms necessary to bridge the gap between the aspirations for organized physical activity and actual participation among autistic individuals throughout their lives. Realizing progress demands comprehensive changes across various levels, encompassing policies, programs, attitudes, and accessibility. Such transformations are essential to cultivate inclusive sporting cultures and counteract the disengagement observed from childhood through adulthood.
Lay abstract
Sports and physical activities can be really beneficial for autistic people, but they often encounter challenges, especially as they get older. In our Australian study, we surveyed 103 autistic adults and 169 parents of autistic children to better understand these challenges. We discovered that many autistic children take part in sports and activities, but as they become adults, it becomes harder for them to stay involved. Both the adults and parents expressed a desire for more opportunities for autistic individuals to participate. We also identified some common problems that make it difficult for autistic people to engage in these activities. These challenges include personal issues like anxiety and physical difficulties, difficulties with social communication, and broader societal issues such as a lack of inclusive opportunities and insufficient awareness about autism. On a positive note, we found effective strategies to make participation easier for autistic individuals. These include creating sensory-friendly environments, implementing inclusive rules, ensuring that places are easy to access, offering personalized support, and educating staff about autism. Importantly, our findings are not unique to Australia; they align with research from other countries. This study sheds light on the obstacles autistic people face in sports and activities and provides solutions to improve their experiences. To bring about meaningful change, we must adjust policies, programs, attitudes, and overall accessibility. This will foster inclusive sports and activities for autistic individuals from childhood through adulthood.
Historically, autism has predominantly been characterized as a disorder within the framework of the medical model which views disability as a problem or impairment located primarily within the individual (Bingham et al., 2013; Palmer & Harley, 2012; Pellicano & den Houting, 2021). This perspective, however, contrasts with the emerging neurodiversity paradigm, which views autism as an inherent facet of human diversity, manifesting in variations across domains such as communication and sensory processing (Leadbitter et al., 2021; Pellicano & den Houting, 2021). Proponents of the neurodiversity paradigm purport that many of the “deficits” associated with autism are not a result of an individual's impairments but are largely shaped by the social and environmental factors that create barriers and exclusion for autistic people, consistent with a social model of disability (Anastasiou & Kauffman, 2013; Woods, 2017). Despite increasing recognition of the neurodiversity movement, autism research still lags behind. For instance, while stakeholders seek translatable and practical outcomes from research, most autism research funding is directed towards biological research rather than services and lifespan issues (den Houting & Pellicano, 2019; Office of Autism Research Coordination, 2019; Roche et al., 2020). One of these under-researched yet important areas include the physical activity experiences of autistic people.
Engaging in physical activity holds significant potential for improving various aspects of well-being. Participation in physical activity is associated with enhanced physical fitness, better sleep patterns, improved motor skills and cognitive functioning among autistic people (Healy et al., 2018; Huang et al., 2020; Tse et al., 2022, 2024). Organized physical activities that are planned and coordinated (such as those provided by a club or association and may involve coaching and/or assistance) can hold additional benefits for people with a disability, such as autism. For disabled people, organized physical activities can foster a more inclusive community experience, provide opportunities for socialization and meaningful relationships and promote further psychological and emotional gains, emphasizing additional importance for an often-stigmatized and excluded community (Anderson & Heyne, 2010; Howells et al., 2019a; Murphy & Carbone, 2008).
While some young autistic children may engage in physical activities at a similar level to their peers (Thomas et al., 2019), as autistic children age and become adults they tend to engage in physical activity less frequently when compared to their neurotypical counterparts (Jones et al., 2017; McCoy & Morgan, 2020; McCoy et al., 2016; Rech et al., 2022; Thompson et al., 2022). Yet many autistic people express a desire to engage in more sports and exercise (Stanish et al., 2015). In the general population, a lack of engagement in physical activity is associated with heightened risks for both physical health issues (Lear et al., 2017) and mental health concerns (Rodriguez-Ayllon et al., 2019) and may provide at least some explanation of the alarmingly high rates of chronic health conditions, premature mortality and mental health diagnoses among autistic people (Cashin et al., 2016; Hirvikoski et al., 2016; Lai et al., 2019).
Researchers have begun to explore possible barriers to participation of autistic individuals in different types of physical activities. At the intrapersonal level, difficulties such as poor motor skills, sensory differences, reduced fitness, fear and anxiety, lack of motivation, and negative body image have been identified as potential obstacles (Arkesteyn et al., 2023; Arnell et al., 2017; Healy et al., 2021; May et al., 2018; Nichols et al., 2019). Interpersonally, the absence of social support, negative attitudes from parents and coaches, bullying and differences in social and communication abilities further impede engagement (Arkesteyn et al., 2023; Gregor et al., 2018; Jachyra et al., 2021). This is particularly problematic in team sports that rely on communication between teammates, and may lead to unpredictability and reduced enjoyment (Arnell et al., 2017). In addition, key professionals involved in facilitating physical activity such as physiotherapists have been found to lack autism-specific training, representing a critical gap in both service provision and research (Cynthia et al., 2019). From a societal perspective, there is an absence of inclusive opportunities, which is a key barrier when considering financial constraints, transportation difficulties and a limited awareness of autism (Arkesteyn et al., 2023; Gregor et al., 2018; Healy et al., 2021; Jachyra et al., 2021; Nichols et al., 2019; Stanish et al., 2015).
Conversely, various factors have been emphasized as facilitators for autistic people engaging in physical activities, such as autonomy, positive experiences, predictable routines, customized programming, social support, inclusive policies, proximity to facilities, effective coaching, sensory accommodations, consulting with movement experts with an understanding of autism (e.g., physiotherapists) and the presence of like-minded peers (Arkesteyn et al., 2023; Arnell et al., 2017; Cynthia et al., 2019; Gregor et al., 2018; Jachyra et al., 2021; Nichols et al., 2019). The provision of structured, predictable, and individualized physical activity programs can reduce obstacles and support autistic people to participate (Gordon & Pennington, 2022; Howells et al., 2019b; May et al., 2018). Importantly, such accommodations can be simple and can lead to more inclusive programming (May et al., 2018).
Autism research has predominantly focused on the childhood period (Jang et al., 2014; Mason et al., 2022), which can be problematic as it often relies on parents reporting for their autistic child, and their views and experiences may differ from those of their autistic child (Fletcher-Watson et al., 2016). This pattern of focusing on childhood experiences with parents as informants has been reflected in autism and physical activity research, with research among adults only occurring in recent years (Nichols et al., 2019; Thompson et al., 2022). Moreover, physical activity preferences and experiences can be heavily influenced by cultural and contextual factors, with playing and viewing sport being of high importance in some cultures, such as the Australian culture (Rowe & Gayo, 2020; Rowe & Miller, 2021). Yet, there is a dearth of research on this topic within the Australian context (Arkesteyn et al., 2022), and none focusing on barriers and enablers that includes both autistic child and adult experiences of organized physical activities. Given these considerations, this study aims to investigate the participation in organized physical activities for autistic children and adults within the Australian context. This information will contribute valuable insights that can inform the development of more inclusive and tailored approaches to physical activity for autistic individuals in Australia, ultimately promoting their overall well-being and quality of life. The study was guided by the following exploratory research questions:
What is the level of engagement in organized physical activity for autistic children and adults in Australia? What are the barriers and facilitators to engagement in organized physical activity for autistic people?
Method
Participants
Participants were eligible for this research if they lived in Australia and were an autistic adult (18 + years of age) or a parent/caregiver of a child (between 5 and 17 years of age) with a formal autism diagnosis. Autistic adults included people who self-reported a formal diagnosis (n = 89) and self-identified as autistic (n = 13) as this reflects the range of barriers that exist for adults who may not be able to access a formal diagnosis (de Broize et al., 2022). All autistic adults completed the AQ-28 and scored above the cut-off of 65 indicating autistic traits (M = 84.08, SD = 8.80, range = 65 - 102) (Hoekstra et al., 2010). A total of 103 autistic adults (Mage = 36.75, SDage = 11.97) and 169 parents (Mage = 41.47, SDage = 6.28) of autistic children (Mage = 9.91, SDage = 3.40) participated in this research. The age of autism diagnosis (if known) was higher in autistic adults (Mdiag = 29.24, SDdiag = 15.32) compared to autistic children (Mdiag = 6.10, SDdiag = 3.06). A summary of demographic information is shown in Table 1.
Participant demographic information (N = 272).
Note. ADHD, Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder; ADD, Attention Deficit Disorder; PhD, Doctor of Philosophy.
Procedure
This study, approved by the University of Sydney Human Research Ethics Committee, adopted a mixed methods design, following Creswell and Plano Clark's (2017) guidelines to ensure a comprehensive exploration of organized physical activities among autistic Australians. Recruitment was conducted via Autism Spectrum Australia's (Aspect's) diverse channels, including social media, mailing lists, and autism support networks, alongside word-of-mouth strategies, to ensure a wide-reaching participant base. Participants were directed to a Qualtrics survey, active during July and August 2023, with an average completion time of 18 min. This approach enabled the collection of quantitative data such as participation rates and preferences, alongside qualitative insights into personal experiences, barriers, and enablers, facilitating a nuanced understanding of the factors influencing physical activity engagement.
Online survey
The online survey commenced with eligibility questions where participants were asked to confirm that they lived in Australia and the informant type (autistic adult or parent/caregiver of autistic child). Participants that were not eligible were exited from the survey. Participants were able to complete the survey additional times if they wanted to respond from more than one different perspective (e.g., an autistic adult responding as a parent or parent responding for multiple autistic children).
All participants were asked demographic questions such as co-occurring conditions, age, gender identity (See Table 1), with the parent/caregivers responding to relevant questions for themselves and their child. For the majority of questions, parents/caregivers were responding for their child (their child's experiences of physical activity). Autistic adults were asked questions about both their current engagement in physical activities and when they were a child (aged five to 17 years inclusive). Participants were asked yes/no questions to gauge their or their child's level of participation in physical activities and whether they/their child wanted to participate in more. Participants selected from a predefined list of options as to the type of physical activities they were participating in/would like to participate in. Further questions asked participants to select from predefined options as to any barriers/challenges to participation and what might help/support participation. The predefined options were selected based on the research team's knowledge of common barriers and facilitators to inclusion for autistic people e.g., communication and sensory differences. All questions with predefined options included an ‘other’ open-text response for additional barriers or facilitators and/or further elaboration. Participants were also asked questions to capture further qualitative data such as “Is there anything else you would like to tell us about your/your child's experiences of organized physical activity?” and “Is there anything else you would like to tell us about how you/your child could be better supported to engage in organized physical activities?”
Data management and analysis
Survey responses were exported from Qualtrics as a .sav file and opened in IBM SPSS Statistics version 29 on Windows. A total of 394 people opened the Qualtrics survey, however, 122 were excluded from analysis due to the following reasons; 111 did not action anything in the survey, two did not provide consent and nine did not select an eligible informant type. The remaining 272 survey responses were retained for analysis, with the majority of participants (n = 213) completing the entire survey. Descriptive statistics were analyzed within IBM SPSS Statistics.
Interpretation of the open-text responses was underpinned by Braun and Clarke's (2006, 2019) reflexive thematic analysis framework, employing an inductive strategy to capture the essence of the qualitative data. An integral component of this process was the dual application of semantic and latent coding techniques, undertaken by an autistic researcher to leverage personal insights, thereby enhancing the depth of our analysis (Braun & Clarke, 2013). Semantic coding allowed for the direct interpretation of participants’ explicit narratives, while latent coding facilitated the extraction of underlying themes, revealing the nuanced, often unarticulated dimensions of experiences related to physical activity barriers and facilitators. This analytical duality enabled a comprehensive encapsulation of the participants’ lived realities, with NVivo 1.7.1 serving as the platform for initial code generation and thematic development. Through iterative refinement and collaborative team discussions, we ensured the themes developed were a faithful representation of the data, resonating with both the explicit and implicit content conveyed by the participants.
Researcher positionality
The lead researcher, C.E., is a late-diagnosed autistic adult with extensive personal experience in organized physical activities, including overcoming challenges in team sports during youth and finding a safe haven in a tennis club as an adult. T.T., trained as a clinical psychologist and holds an executive management role in a large autism specific disability organisation with key responsibilities relating to building community understanding of autism through creation of ‘autism-friendly’ environments. V.G., is an experienced clinical psychologist and autism researcher who is also a parent to an autistic young man.
Results
What is the level of engagement in organized physical activities for autistic Australians?
The majority of autistic children (n = 152, 91%) were reported to have taken part in organized physical activities. Among those children who were not participating, 63% were reported to have expressed a desire to participate by their parents. Moreover, 74% of all parents stated that their autistic child expressed interest in being involved in more organized physical activities than they currently are.
The majority of autistic adults (n = 77, 91%) indicated that they had participated in organized physical activities during their childhood (between 5 and 18 years of age). Just under half of the autistic adults, (n = 48, 49%) currently participate in organized physical activities. Of those who were not participating, 20% expressed a desire to participate and 20% were unsure or undecided. Over two-thirds (n = 68, 69%) of autistic adults indicated a wish to engage in a greater number of organized physical activities.
Participants were asked to select what activity they or their child were participating in, or would like to. Autistic adults were also asked to select what activities they had participated in as a child. The most popular activities in order of frequency were swimming (122), dance (90), gym classes/gymnastics (89), soccer (87), martial arts (57), netball (56) and basketball (53). Other activities included cricket, baseball, racquet sports, athletics and Australian Football League (AFL).
What are the barriers and facilitators for autistic people participating in organized physical activities?
Participants were asked to select from multiple predefined options what they felt were issues they (or their child) experienced (if any) when engaging in organized physical activities. While most autistic adults selected few challenges participating as a child, current barriers for autistic adults and children included communication and sensory differences, followed by a poor awareness of autism, physical difficulties and exclusion. Only seven participants (two parents and five autistic adults) reported no difficulties. A summary of barriers is shown below in Table 2.
Barriers for autistic people participating in organized physical activities.
Participants were also asked to select from multiple predefined options what supports they felt might improve experiences (if any). Autism training for coaches and instructors was the most frequent enabler selected across all groups. All groups also responded that the opportunity to practice one-on-one, promoting predictability/setting clear expectations and better supporting sensory and access needs would be helpful supports. A summary of supports is shown in Table 3.
Enablers for autistic people participating in organized physical activities.
Thematic analysis of 436 open-text responses led to the generation of four themes providing further insights into the barriers and facilitators to participation. Quotes are followed by their informant type (autistic adult; AA and parent; P) and identification number per informant from the cleaned survey data.
Theme 1: exclusion and disengagement
Disclosing an autism diagnosis led to exclusion in some cases. Parents recounted their struggles in finding suitable activities: We struggled to find a gym that would be willing to take her once they knew her diagnosis… daughter being isolated and excluded. When I raised concerns about this, they told me she wasn’t the right fit for their competitive team and they were dropping her (P1).
Parents spoke of how their children often felt ignored or tolerated rather than engaged with, which was perceived as setting a poor example for the other children in the group: The class has merely just accepted him being there but not actually engaged with him on his level or even tried to and this is really bad because the other mainstream children see this and are learning it's acceptable to just ignore an autistic child by not putting in a little extra effort to engage (P148).
One participant linked their exclusion in sport to their general societal exclusion: I didn't feel included in a lot of sports, but I didn't feel included anywhere else either. I didn't feel included in anything. This didn't bother me as I was unaware that it was possible to feel included. You can't want something until you know it exists (AA22).
I always found that I was the one person not on the same wave length. I was often put into roles where I was not expected to be as much of a team player, such as a goal keeper, and wasn't allowed into other roles because I wasn't as good at picking up on hints and other cues (AA1).
The struggle with communication differences also paved the way for instances of bullying, as another participant shared, “I love to do sports… except it's quite hard when other people don’t know much about me being autistic and say mean things to me about being different” (AA36). Parents of autistic children also underscored the significance of accounting for communication differences to enhance participation. They advocated for “slower simpler instructions and time to process” (P15) and the use of visuals as beneficial strategies for coaching staff.
Echoing these concerns, similar challenges were encountered concerning diverse sensory preferences. Parents strongly advocated for “ASD sensory friendly uniform options” (P14) highlighting that many standard uniforms proved to be a “sensory nightmare” (P14). The experience of sensory overload was also recounted by parents such as in the example where one child “shutdown” when there were “too many teams crammed into gyms created noisy chaos and she easily became overstimulated and shutdown, nowhere for her to go to regulate” (P102). Even when autistic individuals employed personal sensory management techniques, coaching staff sometimes inadvertently fostered exclusion. The requirement to “remove headphones or earplugs” (P39) imposed by coaching staff contradicted these coping strategies, thereby further limiting participation.
Many autistic adults had ceased engaging in team sports altogether. They spoke of the social roles and politics inherent in team dynamics, which were described as “very difficult for me… As a result, I stopped playing” (AA47). For others, their “experience as a child has stopped me trying as an adult” (AA16). Furthermore, some autistic adults had the choice to play taken away from them as they aged out of their inclusive opportunities, “I now have nowhere to play” (AA97).
Theme 2: anxiety impacts participation
Anxiety and fear emerged as key barriers for autistic children participating in physical activity such as how “anxiety will sometimes take over and stop her from wanting to play” (P53). In some instances, anxiety was described as a barrier in the first place, “while initially keen, felt too anxious to move forward with it” (P11). This anxiety was often exacerbated during trials and competition, and could be a vicious cycle. Trialing for competitive teams was anxiety-provoking as the pressure “created anxiety and poor mental health” (P102). Sometimes anxiety led to experiences of exclusion and discrimination as described in Theme 1, “she was very anxious and did not play ‘well.’ Some of the girls on her team were mean about it… now refusing to go back” (P40). One autistic parent described how creating an inclusive soccer group that focused on playing rather than competing had minimized anxiety for their children: My children found sport very hard. I have 3 boys with autism. I ended up starting an inclusive soccer group at our local soccer club to support children with autism to join in the sport. It allowed them to train and learn the skills but not have to be overwhelmed by playing competitively on the weekend (AA52).
Anxiety manifested in various ways, such as performance anxiety and self-sabotage. As one caregiver reflected, “my child has so much sporting potential, however, he self-sabotages - by this I mean he will shutdown the moment he is uncomfortable, stretched, it feels too hard” (P44).
Theme 3: enhancing participation through accessibility, support and flexibility
Autistic adults and parents wanted more accessibility and flexibility in activities to enable participation. Many autistic adults felt that “cost is the biggest factor” (AA98) as to why they could not participate in more organized physical activities as “clubs are expensive” (AA2). In particular, the overlap with burnout and employment was a common barrier for autistic adults: As a person with autism I have struggled to work full time due to overload, anxiety, exhaustion and poor health. This in turn has impacted my ability to fund organized activities… I simply cannot afford to do more than 2 a week even though it is really very good for my flexibility, self-confidence and physical fitness (AA12).
For others, the ability to have a trusted person present for support was the key enabler that allowed them to participate: This is only possible with the help and support of my wife. For me to be able to navigate the standard social conversations I need her support. With her constant support by participating in the activity as a team mate I am able to participate in standard community sports to my maximum ability (AA68).
While this perspective was also shared by parents, often their children were not able to receive this support as some organizations “would not allow any parents or support workers in to watch or accompany children, regardless of disability” (P1). As a result, many autistic children were “often excluded because he's ‘too much’ whereas some support and he would be fine” (P65).
Parents also wanted more flexibility around commitment, “it's frustrating that I need to pay for a whole term when I don’t know if my child will cope with the program. Very few pay as you go options” (P63). Parents also wanted “smaller groups, instead of a full team, try ½ team, ½ field” (P120), less competitive options available, “just training (not playing the games) would be helpful as a way to introduce them to a sport” (P16) and the ability to engage in mixed-age activities. Participants also highlighted that they wanted more opportunities for independent activities, particularly in school as they “loved being physically active… too much focus on team-based sports” (AA23).
Theme 4: fostering inclusive sporting engagement through autism education
The responses highlighted a dire need for autism education and training across Australian sporting organizations: As a carer wanting my child to participate in organized physical activities it is a stressful endeavour. Extensive research to find options that could work for my child, talking to staff and providing ongoing support at the sessions. Programs that are neuro affirming are rare (P63).
Parents described how Australian sporting organisations have “poor education about inclusion in sport” (P25) and that a “lack of (autism) awareness and understanding hinders his participation” (P42). Parents noted that their “child could have been supported better by the club having a greater understanding (of autism)” (P7). This perspective was shared by autistic adults who called for “more (autism) awareness/knowledge for all coaches” (AA102), particularly as “it doesn’t stop you from competing we just need extra help” (AA97).
When sporting organizations understand autism, it can be a “real game changer for my son in terms of increasing his confidence with sports, creating opportunities for him to compete, and helping him feel included and valued” (P35). While some parents were lucky enough to find such organizations, there was a consistent view that more autism education and training was needed: I think that belonging to a club that has been established by people who understand neurodiversity has been extremely beneficial. In terms of other organisations, I think it would be helpful to create education programs for coaches/staff to help them to understand how to support autistic students (P35).
Discussion
This mixed methods study aimed to investigate the level of engagement in organized physical activities for Australian autistic children and adults, and to identify any potential barriers or facilitators to participation. We found that the vast majority of autistic children (as reported by parents and retrospectively as reported by adults) have engaged in some form of organized physical activity, yet only about half of the autistic adults surveyed in this sample were actively engaged in organized physical activity. The rates of participation during childhood reported in our study at first glance are encouraging and are much higher than findings in previous studies which have ranged from approximately 30 to 50% (McCoy & Morgan, 2020; McCoy et al., 2016). However, this most likely reflects differences in time periods assessed i.e., “ever participated” in the current study versus “past 12 months” in previous studies (McCoy & Morgan, 2020; McCoy et al., 2016). The pattern of reduced participation in organized physical activities into adulthood is consistent with the general population (Dumith et al., 2011), as adults may seek out opportunities outside organized/club-based settings (Eime et al., 2020). Yet, it was promising to see that engagement in our sample of autistic adults was not lower than rates in the Australian general public (Australian Bureau of Statistics, 2015). It is possible this may be influenced by the strong sporting culture in Australia (Rowe & Miller, 2021), and/or that four of the top five frequent activities did not rely on team participation.
Despite this engagement, it is important to note that our parents of autistic children and autistic adults themselves echoed the voices of Stanish and colleagues’ (2015), that autistic people want to engage and participate in more organized physical activities than they currently are. Autistic adults have lower levels of physical activity overall compared to non-autistic adults and higher levels of sedentary behaviours (Hillier et al., 2020; Jones et al., 2017; Thompson et al., 2022) which has been linked to a heightened risk of physical health and mental health concerns in the general population (Lear et al., 2017; Rodriguez-Ayllon et al., 2019). Australian research has shown that participating in club-based sports can yield significant health and mental health benefits including a decreased risk of chronic health conditions and lower rates of depression (Eime et al., 2015). Engagement in organized sport also provides increased opportunities for social engagement and community participation (Skinner et al., 2008; Zhou & Kaplanidou, 2018) which may be particularly important for autistic people. Therefore, it is imperative that interventions and supports help re-engage autistic adults, to not only support physical health, but also mental health and overall quality of life.
Our secondary objective was to identify potential barriers and facilitators to engaging in organized physical activities. In terms of barriers to participation, at the individual level, participants spoke of sensory differences, physical challenges, and anxiety among autistic children. However, consistent with a social model of disability (Anastasiou & Kauffman, 2013), interpersonal and societal barriers were also described including a lack of awareness of autism among coaches and trainers leading to misunderstanding of social and communication differences and experiences of exclusion and discrimination. These broader social factors hindering levels of physical activity among autistic people have also been demonstrated in studies conducted in Belgium, Canada, United States and Sweden (Arkesteyn et al., 2023; Arnell et al., 2017; Gregor et al., 2018; Hillier et al., 2020) and are consistent with numerous studies that have found evidence of stigma and discrimination directed towards autistic people in a range of contexts including education settings, workplaces and health settings (e.g., Edwards et al., 2023; Han et al., 2021; Turnock et al., 2022).
Our findings also point to the types of accommodations and supports that may facilitate participation. Customizing activities to suit the individual's specific needs and preferences, utilizing visual aids, permitting the presence of a support person, and offering one-on-one guidance may contribute to achieving success. These relatively simple accommodations and supports have been demonstrated to be highly valued and beneficial in adapted community programs (Howells et al., 2019b; May et al., 2018). Sporting organizations could implement more inclusive policies, provide autism training for staff, enhance program flexibility, and improve accessibility through subsidy schemes. Such training and policies are likely to have a positive impact beyond just the autistic community, as there is a recognized requirement for greater inclusion to support individuals with a variety of hidden disabilities in physical activities (Hickingbotham et al., 2021). Ultimately, the establishment of affirming sporting cultures that embrace neurodiversity can foster a cycle of active participation and promote well-being. This is critically significant as the reduction of barriers and provision of supports can encourage the re-engagement of autistic adults who have disengaged from organized physical activities, as well as prevent another generation of autistic children from withdrawing.
Implications for practice, service delivery and policy
The findings of this study underscore the pressing need for tailored strategies to enhance the participation of autistic individuals in organized physical activities. Central to our recommendations, detailed in Table 4, is the principle of inclusivity, advocating for systemic changes that span individual, organizational, and policy levels. These recommendations, informed by our analysis of both quantitative and qualitative data, offer a concrete framework for actionable change.
Recommendations for organizations, staff and parents/autistic adults.
Our study highlights the imperative for autism-specific training for staff, coaches, and volunteers within sporting organizations and schools. Such training should not only focus on understanding autism's multifaceted nature but also on practical strategies to foster inclusive and supportive environments. Implementing these recommendations requires a commitment to continuous learning and adaptation, ensuring that programs are responsive to the needs and preferences of autistic participants.
Moreover, the development of inclusive policies and procedures is crucial. These should encompass reasonable accommodations, program modifications, and sensory considerations, directly informed by the lived experiences of autistic individuals and their families. By adopting these measures, organizations can move towards more accessible and engaging physical activity opportunities.
The implications of our findings extend to policy formulation. Policymakers should consider these recommendations as a basis for developing guidelines that encourage the provision of inclusive, accessible, and adaptable physical activity programs. Such policies can serve as a catalyst for change, promoting a broader cultural shift towards recognizing and valuing the participation of autistic individuals in all aspects of community life.
The actionable recommendations presented in Table 4, derived from our analysis, are not merely suggestions but a call to action. They embody a collective aspiration for a future where autistic individuals are fully embraced within the realm of organized physical activities—a future where participation is not hindered by barriers but facilitated through thoughtful, inclusive practices and policies.
Strengths and limitations
This study has a number of strengths and limitations. The participatory nature of the study whereby all elements of the research conducted were led by an autistic researcher helped to ensure that the methods and interpretation of results included authentic insights. The large sample captured the perspectives of parent/carers and autistic adults from rural and regional areas across Australia. The mixed methods approach allowed us to gather information on participation in organized physical activity along with some anticipated barriers and enablers, and to expand on this with rich qualitative insights. In terms of limitations, autistic adults were predominantly White, tertiary educated and identified as female. Additionally, parent/caregiver reports were predominately female, providing information about their White, male child. This may limit the generalizability of our findings. While the reported rates of organized physical activity participation of autistic children were high in our study, specifying a time period may have captured a better representation of level of childhood engagement. In addition, asking autistic adults to reflect on their experiences as a child may have resulted in inaccuracies due to memory bias, or may not represent the current situation due to changes in the autism landscape in Australia (den Houting & Pellicano, 2019). It is important to note, however, that there were few marked differences in either the qualitative or quantitative findings between parent report and autistic adults reporting on their experiences as children.
Conclusion
This mixed methods study makes an important contribution to what is known about participation in organized physical activities among autistic people within the Australian context. Our findings reveal that while most autistic children participate in some organized physical activities, engagement drops in adulthood and throughout autistic people's lives there is a persisting desire for greater involvement. Barriers are complex and multi-level, spanning intrapersonal, interpersonal and societal factors. Key obstacles include anxiety, social communication differences, exclusion, inadequate autism understanding, and limited accessibility. Facilitators emphasize autism-specific accommodations, inclusive policies, proximity, affordability and individualized coaching. Ultimately, this study underscores the need for tailored, flexible approaches to translate strong aspirations for physical activity into enhanced participation and associated well-being benefits across the lifespan. Progress requires changes at individual, organizational and systemic levels to foster inclusive sporting cultures that celebrate neurodiversity. Without progress, many autistic adults will likely not re-engage with organized physical activities, and we risk future generations of autistic children following their withdrawal.
Footnotes
Acknowledgments
The authors are grateful for the autistic adults and parents who were willing to complete our online survey and share their experiences of physical activity within Australia. We also acknowledge Mustafa Al Ansari who supported with the design of this study, and Ru Ying Cai who provided feedback on the finalized manuscript.
Declaration of conflicting interests
The authors declared no potential conflicts of interest with respect to the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article.
Funding
This research was partially funded by the Australian Department of Social Services Information Linkages and Capacity (ILC) Building program. Autism Spectrum Australia also provided the funding for this research.
