Abstract
This qualitative study aims to uncover the specific trans-boundary learning culture employed by Korean middle school students in pursuing special purpose high schools (SPHS) admission by utilizing Young Chun Kim’s (2018b conceptual framework of trans-boundary learning cultures. For this purpose, interviews, participant observations and documentary analysis were conducted with middle and high school students and shadow education instructors. This inquiry moves beyond the general conclusions of Western quantitative studies and literature reviews, which primarily emphasize the contributory role of shadow education to student's academic success. Furthermore, this study will enable us to explore why, how and for what purpose academically excellent students utilize shadow education for their future. Its findings will not only highlight the limitations of conventional school curricula and public education classes in meeting students’ needs, but also propose new directions and possibilities for tailored curriculum development and classroom research for entering prestigious high schools and universities.
Keywords
Introduction
While most middle school students in Korea focus on pursuing admission to regular high schools or vocational and technical high schools, there exists a distinct group of students who opt for an alternative path. These students aspire to join Korean IVY League High Schools. In Korea, these are referred to as ‘Special Purpose High Schools’ (SPHS), which offer specialized curricula in fields such as science, foreign languages and art (Kim & Byun, 2014, p. 15). Just like the IVY League, getting into these Korean IVY League high schools requires significantly more effort compared to regular schools. Students aspiring to attend these schools need to achieve excellent grades during middle school and prepare for various requirements, including writing a self-introduction letter and portfolio outlining their academic plans and future aspirations, in-depth interviews, composing essays and engaging in extensive reading activities.
Nevertheless, preparing students for the distinct entrance requirements of SPHS poses a challenge for regular middle schools. It is primarily due to Korea's education policy, which strongly emphasizes ‘fairness’ (Byun, 2010; Exley, 2020, p. 225; Kim et al., 2020, p. 377); in learning opportunities and aiming to prevent excessive academic competition, known as ‘education fever’ (Seth, 2002). In line with this policy direction, Korea maintains a national curriculum system that outlines the mandatory educational content for elementary, middle and high school students. Schools and teachers are expected to design and implement their curricula based on these official guidelines. Moreover, enacting and implementing the ‘Prior Learning Prohibition Act’ in 2014 further restricted schools from officially providing students with opportunities for in-depth learning beyond the prescribed content and level specified in the national curriculum (Kim et al., 2020, p. 378).
However, as previously mentioned, students aspiring to join SPHS must possess cognitive abilities and academic achievements that surpass the level prescribed by middle school curricula. As a result, many students with academic aspirations explore alternatives beyond the public education system to fulfil their academic needs (Kim, 2016). Research indicates that a significant number of academically gifted students undergo intense competition to secure admission to the limited number of talented schools across the nation. To gain a competitive advantage in this rigorous process, gifted students heavily rely on shadow education aside from regular school education. Notably, various shadow education institutions, such as private academies and tutoring services, provide tailored learning materials, content and curricula adequately designed to meet student's academic needs and goals (Kim & Jung, 2019; Kim et al., 2020).
This reality indicates the need for a more nuanced understanding and approach to shadow education that goes beyond negative assessments, such as fostering excessive competition, diminishing intrinsic motivation for learning and perpetuating social inequalities (Jung & Jung, 2019; Lee et al., 2019; Ripley, 2013; Seth, 2002). While numerous international comparative education studies have explored the impact of shadow education, there has been a relatively limited focus on investigating learners’ lives and the practical methods of learning within the context of both public education and shadow education (Bray, 2009; Bray & Lykins, 2012; Doherty & Dooley, 2018; Jerrim, 2015; Mori & Baker, 2010). Therefore, further research and theoretical exploration are still warranted, including investigations into how shadow education contributes to students’ academic success and how students navigate the boundary between shadow education and public education (Kim et al., 2018).
So, this study intended to explore strategies employed by academically excellent middle school students in Korea who seek admission to SPHS through shadow education. Specifically, the study focused on understanding high-achieving students’ learning attitudes and perceptions to realize their academic aspirations, how they use shadow education and the characteristics of the learning culture they develop. To grasp the features of the learning culture shaped by shadow education, this study draws on the research conducted by Young Chun Kim (Kim, 2018a; Kim, 2018b; Kim & Jung, 2021; Kim et al., 2020). Through this investigation, it may discover the unique trans-boundary learning culture that sets apart middle school students aspiring to join SPHS from their peers, as well as gain insights into their distinct learning culture with shadow education.
Research question have been formulated to address these objectives: What are the characteristics of the trans-boundary learning culture that emerges among students aspiring to enter SPHS in Korea, with a foundation in shadow education? This research question holds significance as they strive to unveil the distinctive attributes of the learning culture and the actual utilization of shadow education within Korea's regional and cultural context. Furthermore, these inquiries may challenge Western biases concerning shadow education and East Asian educational phenomena and achievements, ultimately providing valuable insights for institutional and practical measures of students’ academic development and success. To this end, the following chapter examines the aspirations towards SPHS and the role of shadow education in Korean society.
Literature Review: Academic Desire for Special Purpose High School and the Role of Shadow Education in South Korea
After the implementation of the High School Equalization Policy (HSEP) in 1974, SPHS were established to meet the societal demand for providing a more diverse and effective education to academically capable students (Exley, 2020). The policy of SPHS was an attempt to respect the choices of parents and students in education and to enhance the excellence of the education system. As part of these efforts, various types of SPHS have been established in Korea, including high schools of art, physical education, science and foreign languages, since 1974. Additionally, the Meister High School, which aims to nurture technical talent, was included in the high school system through the high school diversification policy introduced during the Lee Myung-Bak administration in 2009, leading to a reorganization of the current high school system.
SPHS stands out from other high schools due to its unique approach to selecting students. While the high school assignment method under the HSEP was based on a lottery system, SPHS reflects the selection rights of students and parents who aspire to attend these schools and the selection rights of the schools themselves (Exley, 2020, p. 222). Furthermore, SPHS differentiates itself by providing specialized curricula tailored to the student's characteristics. Previous studies indicate that teachers in SPHS, who deliver specialized subjects such as foreign languages and sciences, often possess higher expertise, including doctoral degrees, compared to teachers in regular high schools (Ahn & Yang, 2015; Kim, 2016). Therefore, leveraging the expertise of these teachers, SPHS offers students exceptional subject and non-subject experiences, including a higher level of education, customized curricula and club activities optimized for the students’ high expectations and academic abilities (Jeon, 2018, pp. 231–234).
And there is another reason why Korean middle school students with outstanding academic records aim for admission to SPHS. The answer lies in their belief that enrolling in a specialized high school such as SPHS increases their likelihood of getting accepted into prestigious universities (Park, 2020). In the real world, there is a widespread perception among parents and students in Korea that ‘attending SPHS is a shortcut to a prestigious university’ (Kang et al., 2007; Kim & Shin, 2012, p. 30; Lee, 2012). And these beliefs are not mere illusions; a significant correlation exists between students entering prestigious universities, often called ‘SKY’ (Seoul, Korea, Yonsei) universities, and their high school backgrounds. For instance, looking at the 2023 admissions data at Seoul National University, one of Korea's top universities, approximately 32.7% of non-scheduled admissions were from SPHS (SNU, 2023). Analysis data from a Korean private education institution reveals that by 2022, Seoul National University admitted 28.2% of its new students from SPHS; Yonsei University had 14.7% from SPHS; Korea University's intake was 11.1% from SPHS; Ewha Woman's University included 19.4% from SPHS; and KAIST enrolled a significant 69.8% from SPHS, underscoring their impressive admission rates to major universities (Lee, 2022). This bag of sweets in the ideal learning conditions offered by SPHS, including the learning environment, curriculum, friendships and the higher likelihood of admission to prestigious universities, drives Korean students and their parents to aspire to attend SPHS.
However, what is noteworthy here is that the number of SPHS in Korea accounts for only about 6% of all high schools (KEDI, 2022). In Korea, there exist a total of 161 SPHSs, including science high schools, gifted children's high schools, international high schools and foreign language high schools, which is significantly low compared to the total number of high schools (2,373). Nevertheless, the competition for admission to SPHS remains fierce, as students and parents perceive them as a ‘shortcut to entering prestigious universities’. The intense competition for entrance examinations has rendered shadow education an essential resource for students and parents aspiring to enter SPHS.
Meanwhile, this phenomenon has resulted in a significant societal issue concerning private education expenses (Kim & Park, 2010). Accordingly, since the Lee Myung-Bak administration in 2009 efforts have been made to reduce private education costs by implementing the following SPHS entrance examination amendment (Kim & Ahn, 2013, pp. 131–138). The primary objective of the revised SPHS admission policy, which is currently implemented in most SPHS admissions processes, is twofold. First, the written test has been eliminated from the admission process, and students are selected based on self-directed learning. This approach entails admissions officers evaluating and selecting students based on their grades, attendance and student records. Notably, to decrease the reliance on private education for boosting grades in all subjects, only the subjects aligned with the intended purpose of each SPHS were factored into the grading system. Second, the reflection of awards required for admission to SPHS has been prohibited, aiming to impede factors that promote private education beyond the school setting. Additionally, a student selection system for each department and a science creativity camp have been implemented to identify exceptional students with a clear sense of purpose that aligns with the objectives of the SPHS establishment. Furthermore, efforts have been made to enhance the public education management system to enable these students to attain significant educational benefits through public education, thereby reducing the need for private education.
However, there is widespread scepticism regarding the impact of the SPHS admission process reorganization on reducing private education expenses. Firstly, according to data from the Korea National Statistical Office (KNSO) released in March 2023, approximately 78% of Korean students and about 76.2% of middle school students still participate in shadow education, marking the highest recorded participation rate in private education (KNSO, 2023). It was found that students engaged in shadow education spend around $460 per month on such instruction. Students who were queried about their reasons for partaking in shadow education indicated that they aimed to ‘complement their school courses’ (51.6%), ‘enhance their academic knowledge’ (27.1%) and ‘prepare for school’ (15.8%) (KNSO, 2023, p.14). These findings indicate that the current public education system does not fully address students’ academic needs and goals. Moreover, contrary to the common perception that shadow education undermines public education, it also serves as a crucial avenue for bridging gaps in public education by providing supplementary support for students’ studies and preparations for the future (Jung & Jung, 2019).
When considering SPHS admissions concerning this, the attempts to assess students’ potential by reducing the number of subjects reflected in entries, eliminating a separate written test and introducing a self-directed learning approach have not yielded significant outcomes in terms of reducing private education expenses. It is because, although there is no longer a written test for SPHS entrance exams, middle school students aspiring to enter SPHS still need to maintain outstanding academic grades and have opportunities to explore and gain an in-depth understanding of their career paths, aptitudes and subjects of interest. Furthermore, even once entering SPHS, students must be thoroughly prepared to tackle the challenging demands of specialized curricula and grasp the level of in-depth learning required beforehand. Moreover, in the entrance examination system of prestigious universities, one of the primary goals of entering SPHS, major subjects such as Korean, English, mathematics and science continue to be highly emphasized. Therefore, under the current system, students still require an intensive and comprehensive study of major subjects and assistance in devising effective strategies for successful entrance examinations.
So, the reality and demands faced by students aspiring to enter SPHS cannot be adequately met through school education alone (Byun, 2014; Jo & Kim, 2021, p. 88; Kim, 2016, p. 44; Kim & Shin, 2012). It comes from most middle schools struggle to provide a dedicated space, time and systematic program to prepare students for SPHS admissions. As a result, students aspiring to enter SPHS enhance their competitiveness through shadow education, which provides them with various opportunities such as access to ‘entrance exam information’, revisiting learning materials to maintain academic grades, pre-learning high school-level content and learning advanced concepts (Exley, 2020; Jung & Jung, 2019, pp. 682–683; Kim et al., 2020; Kim & Shin, 2012). Many students aspiring to enter SPHS receive systematic instruction, not only in-depth learning opportunities but also customized strategies for the entrance examinations by attending three to five specialized academies focused on SPHS entrance exams (commonly referred to as ‘SPHS-specialized Hakwon’).
The typical success strategies employed by these SPHS-specialized Hakwons (hereinafter ‘SPHS-Hakwon’) in Korea are as follows (Kim, 2016). First, they emphasize early study preparation. Students aiming for SPHS typically begin their preparations in the first year of elementary or middle school. Hence, Hakwons offer repeated training to enhance effective study techniques, such as developing conceptual understanding, problem-solving skills and taking notes on incorrect answers. Second, they foster a sense of goal orientation. Through in-depth interviews, Hakwons assist students in selecting suitable SPHS and departments that align with their aptitudes, presenting clear challenges for them. Third, they provide time management strategies. In addition to securing study time, Hakwons offer systematic guidance for students to design their study schedules while considering other activities necessary for SPHS admissions, such as club activities and reading. Fourth, they offer customized learning opportunities by providing analysed data on past entrance exam trends and previous exam questions. Fifth, they provide stress management techniques. Drawing from extensive experience in SPHS entrance exams, Hakwons quickly identify students’ exam-related stress, anxiety and frustration, offering tailored feedback, motivation, encouragement and assistance with self-introductions. In fact, according to Lee (2019), students who extensively engaged in shadow education, such as attending long-term Hakwon programs tailored for SPHS admissions, demonstrated a higher rate of the entrance to SPHS compared to those who did not. It highlights the pivotal role of shadow education as a vital companion throughout the lengthy journey toward SPHS admissions.
Nonetheless, previous studies on SPHS and shadow education in Korea have primarily focused on the correlation between household private education expenditures and SPHS in terms of social inequality reproduction, with limited exploration of how students wishing to enter SPHS utilize shadow education (Byun & Kim, 2010; Lee, 2012; Park et al., 2011; Seo et al., 2018). Stated differently, while acknowledging the significant correlation between high participation in shadow education and admission to SPHS, there is little research on how it contributes to students’ academic success and growth. When shadow education is essential so that middle school students can successfully enter SPHS, a careful study of how students use it for this purpose and how to form a distinctive learning culture should be prioritized. Therefore, this study considers the core of the learning culture among students aspiring to enter SPHS as ‘shadow education’ and aims to explore the characteristics of learning culture that students are developing based on this practice.
Research Methods
This study considered purposeful sampling strategies (Patton, 2014) to effectively achieve the research objectives, and the specific criteria for selecting participants are as follows: First, third-year students within the top 5% of academic performance in middle school who aimed to enter SPHS or first-year high school students who had entered SPHSs and could recall their experiences with shadow education during middle school. Second, students who had practical experience with actively used shadow education. Third, students residing in the metropolitan area (Incheon, Seoul, Gyeonggi Province) where the researchers were quickly accessible to ensure smooth in-depth interviews and participant observations. The final selected 20 participants comprised 10 third-year middle school students and 10 first-year high school students attending SPHSs. Additionally, five academy instructors with ten years of experience working SPHS-Hakwons in the metropolitan area were recruited as research participants. Informed consent was obtained from all participants, including the rights and research ethics, on the premise that all personal information would be treated anonymously and safely destroyed after the study was completed.
Qualitative data collection took place from November 2022 to May 2023. This study's primary qualitative data collection method was in-depth interviews with the research participants. These interviews intended to explore the learning culture of students utilizing shadow education and their strategies for entering SPHS. Further interviews were conducted with five Hakwon instructors to gain insights into their strategies and perceptions. Semi-structured interview questionnaires were developed to ensure the quality and consistency of these interviews (Table 1). In-depth interviews, lasting approximately 90 minutes, were conducted with all research participants twice. In some cases, additional data was collected through email or social media platforms, depending on the situation.
Sample of In-Depth Interview.
Lastly, this study, as qualitative research, drew upon various strategies to ensure the validity and reliability of the research (Creswell & Miller, 2000, pp. 126–129; Miles et al., 2019). First, the researchers diversified the types of qualitative data collected. This included participant observation for approximately 2-hour at three SPHS-Hakwons. In addition, it conducted document analysis by collecting shadow education learning materials, admission documents and academic plans used by the students. Second, to minimize subjective interpretation and extreme views through discussion and verification with two experienced qualitative researchers at all stages of data analysis. The analysis involved iterative processes of reading and deriving meaningful themes from the collected data and transcripts, followed by ongoing discussions to refine the articles and appropriate terminology. Third, the interpretation and conclusions of the interview transcripts were shared with the research participants to help reduce subjective biases and errors in understanding.
Findings: Four Features of Trans-Boundary Learning Culture
The analysis revealed four characteristics of trans-boundary learning culture utilizing shadow education among middle school students aspiring to enter SPHS. These findings provide insights into an emerging learning culture that proactively explores and utilizes information and resources beyond mainstream education, leveraging shadow education.
SPHS-specialized Hakwon as a major learning space Using educational information from shadow education specialists Collaboration between home and shadow education Student agency as the decision maker for academic success
SPHS-Specialized Hakwon as a Major Learning Space
Middle school students in Korea aspiring to enter SPHS engage in various types of shadow education such as private tutoring, group study sessions and online lectures in diverse learning spaces, following the concept of a trans-boundary learning culture proposed by Kim (2018b). These activities proceed in a range of locations, such as public libraries, study cafes, reading rooms, private tutoring institutes and homes (Kim, 2018b; Kim & Jung, 2021). However, among these options, students in the study showed an apparent inclination towards a specific type and space of shadow education known as ‘SPHS-Hakwon’. When questioned about their preference for attending academies, JIhoon who reported attending the largest number of SPHS-Hakwons responded as follows. ‘I trust SPHS-Hakwon due to having a proven track record of producing successful SPHS students over a long period. Following the Hakwon’s curriculum helps improve my grades and makes studying easier. The structured approach builds my confidence by focusing on concept understanding, problem-solving, and reviewing mistakes. Lastly, studying with like-minded friends who have similar grades and goals keeps me motivated’.
Aspiring students aiming for SPHS were found to take part in multiple SPHS-Hakwons. One of the primary reasons is that SPHS-Hakwons generally provide intensive training in subjects such as mathematics and science. For instance, M Hakwon, which has successfully admitted around 5,000 students to SPHS over the past decade, including prestigious schools for gifted students, and C Hakwon, which admitted approximately 300 students to SPHS this year, both offered math and science curricula tailored to SPHS admissions three times a week for about three hours, targeting elementary and middle school students. On the other hand, E Hakwon exclusively focused on English education. So, students combined the educational programs offered by these SPHS-Hakwons to create personalized learning plans aligned with their academic objectives and individual needs.
SPHS-Hakwons not only provide a subject-focused curriculum but also offer comprehensive information and counselling for various aspects of SPHS admissions, including students’ academic lives. For example, C Hakwon runs a specialized program assisting elementary and middle school students aspiring for SPHS admissions by helping them create individual portfolios. Through this program, C Hakwon provides subject-specific classes in math and science, as well as systematic managing students’ overall school lives, including monitoring reading activities and records, guidance on relevant extracurricular and volunteer work to SPHS admissions, strategies for managing grades, cultivating study habits, fostering motivation and encouraging participation in school competitions.
Furthermore, most SPHS-Hakwons not only offer education programs focused solely on SPHS admissions but also provide long-term programs to prepare students for admission to top-tier universities in the future. To achieve this, SPHS-Hakwons allocate optimal classes based on student's abilities and goals, as determined by admission tests. Students receive regular quarterly diagnostic evaluations to track their academic progress. Feedback and level-appropriate assignments are then given to help them achieve their learning objectives. In this way, SPHS-Hakwons go beyond providing necessary learning content, study habits, admission strategies and information. They also systematically offer in-depth learning, advanced problem-solving skills and pre-learning opportunities to prepare students for successful high school careers.
Through interviews with the research participants, it could find that current students have developed a more refined perception of learning spaces, surpassing the traditional view of schools and Hakwons and embracing a newly differentiated understanding (Table 2).
Redefinition of Learning Space.
In summary, SPHS-Hakwons are perceived as vital and innovative learning spaces for middle school students aspiring for SPHS admissions. Drawing on their experience, these SPHS-Hakwons promote intellectual growth and guide students to prepare for successful high school life through tailored educational programs that include iterative learning, in-depth study, advanced preparatory learning and problem-solving skills. Moreover, they offer expert guidance on SPHS admissions and consulting services to help students achieve their academic aspirations and reach their full potential. Those play a crucial role in motivating students to avoid burnout and persist in pursuing their goal of attending SPHS.
The case of Suhyuk effectively illustrates the commitment of Korean students who actively engage in SPHS-Hakwons to achieve their goals. Suhyuk has been attending an SPHS-Hakwon for SPHS preparation since the 6th grade of elementary school. Unlike the changing homeroom teachers at school, the Hakwon teachers have been monitoring Suhyuk’s academic performance for a long time. So, since these teachers deeply understood Suhyuk’s learning style and goals, providing him with suitable assignments, reviewed his mistakes, and offered tests to supplement his weak areas. Additionally, the Hakwon teachers offer regular counseling sessions to assist with the preparation for SPHS admission, including maintaining a record of extracurricular activities, engaging in reading activities, and interview preparation. In the 3rd year of middle school, Suhyuk started attending another Hakwon specializing in mathematics. The original Hakwon focused on overall management for school grades and SPHS preparation, while the new math Hakwon aimed to provide advanced content and prior learning for SPHS. As a result, Suhyuk successfully entered a science high school.
Using Educational Information From Shadow Education Specialists
Like the concept of ‘learning materials convergence’ proposed by Kim (2018b), the students who participated in this study also responded that they are utilizing various learning materials in their own studies. Mostly, parents and students did not rely solely on schools to explore necessary learning materials and information. Instead, they actively searched for materials from various sources (Table 3). In particular, parents actively utilized online communities to gather information about SPHS admissions. For instance, in the representative SPHS exam preparation community on Korea's portal site ‘Naver’, which has about 300,000 members, numerous parents share various information regarding study methods, recommended academies and online lectures, admission strategies and learning materials for their children.
The Sources and Critical Contents of Educational Information.
However, even though parents and students gather learning materials from various sources, proper utilization often requires the assistance of shadow education experts. This is because these instructors, having years of experience in guiding students toward SPHS admissions, possess a detailed understanding of students’ learning styles, levels and objectives through regular SPHS-Hakwon tests and consultations. Therefore, shadow education instructors offer personalized learning materials and information to students, leading to optimal learning outcomes.
According to Teacher B, a highly experienced instructor with 12 years of expertise in SPHS admissions preparation, their academy conducts yearly analyses of previous exam papers from major metropolitan area SPHSs, top-rated publisher workbooks and 3 years’ worth of mock exams. In fact, the analysis of the learning materials research participants received from shadow education revealed that they were categorized into various types and purposes, such as preparation for school exams, mock exams, advanced learning, conceptual understanding and in-depth learning. It was also evident that these learning materials were developed based on a thorough analysis of past exams from different schools, learning magazines and top-rated publisher workbooks and mock exam books.
Moreover, students, who received advice from the shadow education instructor, proactively utilized the provided materials according to their own intentions and objectives from diverse learning materials through shadow education and various sources. For instance, when attending online lectures (In-gang), they selectively listened to relevant segments by deconstructing the overall curriculum. They also distinguished between classes and learning materials, opting for specific learning materials. Furthermore, they repurposed exam-focused materials for pre-learning high school subjects and used KSAT (Korean SAT) mock exam materials for concept comprehension through repeated problem-solving. As such, students’ new learning culture is not stereotyped with fixed boundaries and frameworks of prescribed learning materials. Moreover, the nuanced guidance from the shadow education instructor proves invaluable in assisting students’ decisions.
For instance, Jaesung received recommendations from his seniors, who had already entered a science high school, regarding the ln-gang of instructors M and E. These In-gangs, designed for post-SPHS admission and advanced studies in the top-ranking middle school third-grade curriculum, were traditionally favoured by successful seniors. However, Jaesung felt these In-gang and learning materials did not align with his study style. So, the shadow education instructor, who knows Jaesung well, recommended another In-gang that is suitable for him. Despite feeling somewhat uneasy about not following the traditional path, Jaesung found that the new style of In-gang, which offered more focused and repetitive learning opportunities, allowed him to concentrate better on his studies. As a result of his outstanding performance and systematic preparation, Jaesung successfully gained admission to a science high school this year. In a related interview, Dahye expressed a similar perspective: ‘Just because someone succeeded using specific study materials doesn't mean those materials are suitable for me’. She emphasized the importance of self-assessment in determining one's own learning objectives and selectively utilizing learning materials that best serve those objectives. And the advice from the shadow education specialists effectively assists in making such decisions.
Students were receiving customized learning materials through shadow education for various purposes, such as preparing for school exams, mock exams, pre-learning and advanced studies. At the same time, students were not simply accepting learning materials as they were given but rather engaging in metacognitive reflection to align them with their learning styles, preferences and goals with guidance from shadow education instructors.
Collaboration Between Home and Shadow Education
Collaborative support from parents and shadow education instructors was essential for students aspiring to enter SPHS. Recent studies (Kim & Jung, 2021; Kim et al., 2022) highlighted that parents and teachers no longer occupy authoritarian and oppressive roles in Korea but position themselves as collaborative facilitators and supporters of proactive and self-directed learners, aiding their academic success. Their roles perform to support students’ academic growth are as follows.
According to the responses of the research participants, parents were found to engage in three significant efforts to support their children's admission to SPHS. First, parents attempted to acquire admission information and materials from SPHS-Hakwons and tailored them to their children's needs. Second, they created a conducive learning environment at home, allowing their children to effectively utilize shadow education resources, such as In-gang, private tutoring and Hakwon assignments. Lastly, parents provided transportation and financial/emotional support for their children to attend Hakwon or In-gang. In this way, parents recognized the role and function of shadow education in all aspects of their children's learning beyond school classes, actively striving to enable them to study effectively.
Moreover, shadow education instructors provided the most practical knowledge and direct strategies for admission to SPHS, such as counselling to improve academic achievement. Based on this counselling, shadow education instructors assess students’ overall study habits, learning goals, exam strategies and plans, providing tailored training. They also keep track of students’ learning styles and performance changes through regular daily, weekly or monthly tests, maintaining a portfolio of their progress. Subsequentially, they provide career counselling and advice on study methods and even recommend other necessary academies as needed, typically on a monthly basis. Additionally, they organize regular admissions briefings, offering essential customized information related to SPHS admissions.
The interest and efforts of parents in supporting their children to achieve optimal learning outcomes synergize with shadow education institutions that operate based on extensive experience and expertise. For instance, D Hakwon, which has specialized in entrance exams to SPHS in Bucheon, Gyeonggi Province, has long held monthly information seminar for parents regarding the entrance exams for major local high schools. These seminars provide valuable insights for parents to support their children's learning and plan their future success. Additionally, many SPHS-Hakwons offer real-time access to class materials, curricula and other information through apps, websites, or text messages, allowing parents to monitor their children's overall academic progress, trends, recurring mistakes and weaknesses. Consequently, the Hakwons establish a collaborative relationship by sharing the monitored learning information with parents, diagnosing and addressing the student's needs for strategies, knowledge and additional learning.
In summary, it found that students aspiring to enter SPHS have received support from their parents and shadow education instructors. Shadow education institutions have supported parents by regularly providing essential information required for their children's entrance exams and academic success. Furthermore, these institutions have transparently shared and disclosed all information related to students’ learning, such as real-time monitoring, study habits, academic progress and feedback on evaluations, enabling parents to participate as facilitators in their children's entrance exams actively. Finally, through this collaborative approach, shadow educational institutions establish a systematic plan and operation to support student's academic growth and achievement of learning goals.
Student Agency as the Decision Maker for Academic Success
The traditional concept of learning gave authority to teachers and schools while treating students as passive subjects (Kim, 2018b, p. 38). However, this learning concept is now undergoing significant changes. In the study conducted by Kim (Kim, 2018b; Kim & Jung, 2021), it was observed that Korean students, based on shadow education, were integrating various meanings into their learning and transitioning into active learners. The participants who aspired to enter SPHS also demonstrated ‘student agency’ (Leadbeater, 2017) by actively determining the time, place and methods necessary for their learning.
First, students’ agency was evident in reinterpreting the spatiotemporal dimensions of daily lives as spaces for learning based on shadow education. In other words, students viewed their entire lives as spaces for learning, transcending the traditional boundaries of the school, which is typically considered the primary learning space. Moreover, they were not tied to fixed study hours. For instance, in response to an interview, Eunbin acknowledged the subway during her commute, Hakwons, and home as the most efficient study spaces for herself. She perceived school as a space for learning basic concepts, the subway as a space for listening to In-gang or focusing on memorizing English vocabulary, Hakwons as a space for learning problem-solving techniques, and home as a space for reviewing incorrect answers and organizing learning materials before the end of the day or on weekends. Eunbin diligently focused on studying for the upcoming exams and asked questions during the self-study time provided by teachers at school. During the relatively unfocused break times, she solved math problems given by Hakwon. After school, she attended advanced problem-solving classes at the Hakwon to prepare for the challenging exam. Upon returning home, she reviewed the workbooks she got wrong during the day and consolidated newly learned content before bed. Thus, the normalization of learning in daily life, based on shadow education, reveals several key aspects: (a) it surpasses the boundaries of time and space, allowing learning to take anytime and anywhere. (b) learners flexibly choose the most effective types and levels of shadow education based on their circumstances and goals. (c) they can access educational programs to improve academic performance and provide targeted support. These prominent characteristics of shadow education have led to a new learning culture among students, where learning becomes an integrated part of their lives.
Next, students actively utilize the given educational system to achieve their academic goals. For example, Chanbin, a student who aspired to enter a foreign language high school in Seoul, wanted to attend an admission briefing held by an SPHS-Hakwon far from their school, but making it challenging to participate while maintaining his regular school schedule. So, Chanbin did not give in to this situation and persuaded their parents and homeroom teacher by describing the importance of attending the admission briefing. He also utilized the school's ‘experiential learning program’ to his advantage. Through this program, Chanbin explored the area around the foreign language high school with his parents on the day of the briefing without attending regular school, allowing him to participate in the admission briefing and receive consultation. Similarly, numerous students made the most of their time and schedules by wisely using the self-study hours in school, such as tackling challenging study problems offered by Hakwons or enhancing their understanding by attending In-gang sessions.
Another example, in response to the question about how they independently choose their Hakwons, Dohyun and Hyunmin explained choose based on several considering factors, such as which academy and instructor offer the most suitable teaching style for them, the proficiency and atmosphere of the students around them, and the schedule of classes. They also stated that they audited at least three lectures in advance to determine the form of shadow education that would be best for them, as Dohyun said of using the audit system provided by the Hakwons or in-gang before making a final decision. In this way, students actively evaluated various options to find the best way to achieve their academic goals.
Finally, the students developed self-directed learning abilities. In other words, academically excellent students who aspired to enter SPHS were not passively accepting school education or shadow education as they were. Instead, they recognized the need for self-directed learning time as an opportunity to make the countless learning materials they had acquired ‘completely their own’. The students’ self-directed learning was not imposed on them by someone else; rather, it was carried out based on their own needs, plans and the purpose of internalizing the learning content entirely. During the school exam period, the student's self-directed learning occurred in three distinct stages, exhibiting a cyclical pattern. In the first stage, students self-evaluated whether they genuinely understood the knowledge and information obtained through shadow and school education. In the second stage, students self-diagnosed their current level and further learned the necessary study materials through shadow education. In the third stage, they applied the fully internalized learning content to school exams. Then, they returned to the first stage to reassess any areas of weakness.
Kanghyuk and Eunji, who entered a foreign language high school in Seoul this year, consider the strategy of re-evaluating the content they learned in school or Hakwons as an essential step for achieving success. Hence, as a strategy, they refrain from learning new material on weekends and opt to review the content they studied at a study cafe during the week. It helps them identify areas they did not fully comprehend and use In-gangs to study those parts again.
In summary, the students acted as active agents driving academic success, demonstrating various abilities. They actively reinterpreted their everyday time and space into learning spaces by utilizing shadow education to maximize the effectiveness of their studies. Moreover, they avoided passive acceptance of school and shadow education content, opting instead to internalize it using personalized strategies. To do so, students secured self-directed learning time by reviewing study materials and assessing their current state at libraries, study cafes, study rooms and at home. Thus, academic success for the students was no longer achievable solely through school or shadow education. Instead, they realized that the diverse information and knowledge provided by both school and shadow education could have the maximum effect through active choices and internalization as the agents of their own learning.
Conclusion
This research aimed to explore the characteristics of trans-boundary learning culture formed by Korean middle school students aspiring to enter SPHS, based on the research findings of Kim (Kim, 2018a, 2018b; Kim & Jung, 2021). The results indicated that the middle school students aspiring to enter SPHS generally followed the ‘characteristics of trans-boundary learning culture using shadow education’ proposed by Kim (2018b). However, there were prominent features in specific aspects. In other words, beyond merely diversifying learning spaces, students actively assigned significance to each learning space, actively categorizing them. They also engaged with shadow education instructors, actively exchanging ideas and collected personalized learning materials and information. Within the suitable support of both home and academies, students demonstrated agency by proactively exploring learning methods, materials and spaces needed to achieve academic goals. These findings revealed that shadow education played a crucial role in the academic achievement of students aspiring to enter SPHS and attaining their goals. Put simply, shadow education contributed to the students’ academic success by providing them with various information, learning materials and strategies necessary for entering SPHS. Simultaneously, students actively utilized shadow education according to their own intentions and purposes, forming a trans-boundary learning culture optimized for themselves.
Based on these research findings, three suggestions could be proposed. First, there is a need to explore the learning culture among academically excellent students, regardless of whether they are referred to as specialized high school or gifted students in Korea. Since research is not enough on how academically successful students in Korea use shadow education in their learning culture, as well as on the global impact of shadow education on gifted students, these research findings can serve as a new milestone for exploring the learning culture formed by academically excellent students based on shadow education.
Second, there is a need to explore the problems and limitations of the curriculum and teaching strategies provided by school education to academically excellent students. The desire to further enhance academically outstanding students is a common demand among students and parents who maintain shadow education. However, the emphasis on equality in school education (Exley, 2020) fails to adequately meet the needs of academically excellent students. Therefore, school education must develop appropriate and individualized educational programs that balance educational equity and smoothness for academically outstanding students. Additionally, not only teachers responsible for specific grades (e.g., teachers in charge of 3rd-grade middle school) but also all teachers should be able to provide challenging tasks and appropriate information support to academically excellent students. Therefore, further research is needed on developing teacher training programs that provide individualized educational programs for academically exceptional students.
Third, while this study focused only on the trans-boundary learning phenomenon among Korean middle school students aspiring to enter SPHS, future studies should explore the actual effects of trans-boundary learning culture. In other words, it is necessary to investigate the practical impact of trans-boundary learning culture based on shadow education on students’ educational and intellectual growth. Furthermore, ‘Currere’ (Pinar, 1994) are needed to examine the influence of a trans-boundary learning culture based on shadow education on students’ cognitive, emotional and behavioural development, as well as holistic changes in their lives.
Footnotes
Funding
The author received no financial support for the research, authorship and/or publication of this article.
Declaration of Conflicting Interests
The author declared no potential conflicts of interest with respect to the research, authorship and/or publication of this article.
Ethical Considerations
Prior to their participation, all research participants received a detailed explanation of the study and provided written informed consent. Participation was voluntary, and all data were anonymized to ensure confidentiality throughout the study.