Full Employment and Decent Work: Policy Gaps and Strategic Pathways

Abstract

This article explores the evolving commitment to full employment and decent work as a cornerstone of social development efforts. Anchored in key international frameworks—namely the 1995 Copenhagen Declaration, the Millennium Development Goals (MDGs) and the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs)—it first offers a contextual overview of how this agenda has developed over time. Building on existing research and scholarship, the article assesses progress to date, while critically examining the enduring challenges and systemic gaps that hinder broader implementation. It considers how intersecting crises—including technological disruption, demographic shifts, large-scale migration and the rise of informal and precarious labour—have complicated efforts to ensure equitable and sustainable employment. Particular attention is given to structural issues such as high youth unemployment, gender disparities and the expansion of informal work. Moreover, the article highlights institutional weaknesses—such as limited enforcement capacity and insufficient cross-border cooperation—as key barriers to progress. These limitations underscore the need for a renewed, coordinated policy approach and a stronger global governance framework. In closing, the article calls for a reimagining of employment and decent work not only as economic imperatives but as essential foundations for inclusive and just social development.

Introduction

Achieving full employment and ensuring decent work are critical social development goals at both local and global levels. Many other Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) are connected to it. About three decades of commitment to them notwithstanding, the world is far from achieving full employment and decent work conditions for most people (United Nations, 2024). Towards realising these ambitious goals, first it is important to introduce the concept of employment and decent work. According to the International Labour Organisation (ILO), employment means working-age people engaged in any activity to produce goods or provide services for pay or profit. It is work carried out in exchange for payment, which can be in cash or kind, or it can be in the form of profits from the goods and services produced for sale or barter (ILO, 2016). Those who work at least one hour in a 7-day week for pay or profit are counted as employed for statistical purposes. It is important to note that ILO does not count the following productive activities as employment: (a) production of goods when intended mainly or exclusively for own final use by the household or family (e.g., agriculture, fishing, fetching water); (b) volunteer work for organisations; (c) volunteer work producing goods for other households; (d) unpaid work as trainee, intern or apprentice (ILO, 2016).

The ILO’s concept of decent work includes productive employment and fair income, workplace security, right to freedom of expression and organise and participate in decisions, equal opportunity and treatment for all and scope of personal development and social integration. The ILO summarises the concept of decent work in terms of four pillars: employment creation, social protection, right at work and social dialogue (ILO, 2025a). The objective of gender equality is common across the four pillars.

By providing a brief background to these goals, this article discusses some of the major challenges, gaps and actionable strategies needed to make better progress in achieving these targets. It also argues that, given one of the means of production, labour, is being replaced by technological advancements—particularly digital and artificial intelligence (AI)—changes are needed in the concept of and attitude towards employment and to expand the domain of decent work. Employing the secondary data analysis method, this article was written (Pawar, 2004a, 2004b).

Background

As stated in the first article of this special issue (Pawar, 2025), of the 10 commitments made at the 1995 Copenhagen Declaration on Social Development, full employment and decent work was the third commitment. The Declaration stated (United Nations, 1996):

We commit ourselves to promoting the goal of full employment as a basic priority of our economic and social policies, and to enabling all men and women to attain secure and sustainable livelihoods through freely chosen productive employment and work.

The commitment was elaborated under nine points (a–i) at the national level (United Nations, 1996). Governments which joined the Declaration agreed to develop policies and strategies for the creation of employment, the reduction of unemployment and the payment of adequate remuneration. It highlighted full respect for workers’ rights and the participation of employers and workers. It promised to give special attention to structural and long-term unemployment and underemployment of youth, women, people with disabilities and all other disadvantaged groups and individuals. Through appropriate policies, governments agreed to expand work opportunities and productivity, both in urban and rural areas. It also included improving access to required resources (land, credit, information, infrastructure) to enhance self-employment and small and medium enterprises to expand work opportunities and productivity. Recognising the fast-changing technologies, economic conditions and labour markets, it promised to provide education, training and information to both workers and employers. Work–family balance was emphasised by creating policies that enable people to balance paid work with family responsibilities. Equal access, equal pay and equal treatment of women were emphasised. The criticality of the informal sector and the need to link it to the formal economy was pointed out. To ensure quality jobs and to protect the basic rights and interests of workers, the Declaration promised to follow the ILO conventions relating to the principle of non-discrimination, the freedom of association, the right to organise and bargain collectively and the prohibition of forced child labour (United Nations, 1996). Further, at the international level, it committed to fairness to and the protection of migrant workers and the implementation of relevant international instruments (United Nations, 1996). To promote sustained economic growth and to create employment, governments committed to international cooperation, liberalisation of trade and investment and exchange of successful policies and programmes (United Nations, 1996).

In 2000, the eight Millennium Development Goals (MDG) were declared to achieve social development over a period of 15 years, till 2015, though the term ‘social’ was omitted from the nomenclature. None of the eight goals explicitly dedicated to the goal of full employment and decent work, notwithstanding the Copenhagen Declaration’s explicit commitment to it. This was one of the critiques of the MDGs (Pawar, 2017). However, MDG 1 relating to eradicating extreme poverty included under its target 1B as ‘Achieve full and productive employment and decent work for all, including women and young people’. By 2015, this target was not achieved as the labour force outpaced the employment opportunities, working age population was reduced to 60%, which was 62% in 1991 and youth unemployment was three times higher than the rate for adults. Globally, 45% of all workers were still working in vulnerable employment (the share of own-account work and contributing family employment in total employment) (United Nations, 2015a).

Among other things, responding to the above progress and the critique on the MDGs, the SDGs had a specific goal eight relating to decent work and economic growth. The SDG 8 aims to promote sustained, inclusive and sustainable economic growth, full and productive employment and decent work for all. Of its 10 targets, the following targets are clearly linked to full employment and or decent work.

8.3. Promote policies to support job creation and growing enterprises—encourage entrepreneurship, creativity and innovation and support micro-, small- and medium-sized enterprises.

8.5. Full employment and decent work with equal pay—by 2030, achieve full and productive employment and decent work for all, including equal pay for work of equal value.

8.6. Promote youth employment, education and training—by 2020, substantially reduce the proportion of youth not in employment, education and training.

8.7. End modern slavery, trafficking and child labour—take immediate measures to eradicate forced labour, modern slavery and human trafficking, eliminate the worst forms of child labour and end child labour by 2025.

8.8. Protect labour rights and promote safe working environments—ensure safe and secure working environments for all workers, including migrant workers.

8.9. Promote beneficial and sustainable tourism—develop policies to promote sustainable tourism that creates jobs and promote local culture and products.

8.8C. Develop a global youth employment strategy—by 2020, develop and operationalise a global strategy for youth employment in implement the global jobs pact on the ILO.

Most of the commitments made in the 1995 Copenhagen Declaration on Social Development are well reflected in the SDG 8 with specific measurable targets. Achieving SDG 8 by 2030 remains a challenge, requiring urgent action to accelerate progress. That is why the Second World Summit for Social Development, to be held in November 2025, is planning to reaffirm its commitments to the Copenhagen Declaration and identify and address the gaps to accelerate the progress by developing actionable plans and strategies. Towards that end, the following section examines major issues and gaps and actionable strategies for consideration.

Major Issues and Gaps

Multiple Crises

Multiple and overlapping crises, such as the COVID-19 pandemic, conflicts and wars, and climate change and disasters (Pawar, 2021, 2023), have significantly impacted employment and decent work. Millions of people were unemployed, and those who were in the informal sector suffered the most, as most of them did not have any social protection (ILO, 2021a). Most governments’ debt increased during the crisis time. While developed or high-income countries were resilient to cope with these crises, many developing or low- and middle-income countries are suffering from the debt burden and taking a long time to overcome the impact (Kose et al., 2021; Pawar, 2023). Adding to this, recent trade wars and economic uncertainties have caused unfavourable economic conditions for job creation.

Policies and Programmes for Preparedness

As unexpected disasters and economic shocks are becoming common; policies and programmes need to be developed for disaster preparedness and resilience development. In events where people are forced into unemployment, social protection services should be immediately accessible in accordance with national contexts and cultural considerations. Dedicated emergency funds and other resources may be created for such purposes.

Youth Unemployment

Youth unemployment refers to young people between 15 and 24 years of age without work, but available for and seeking employment. Globally, about 14% of youth are unemployed. But, in some countries/regions, the youth unemployment rate and the total number of unemployed young people are alarming. In 20 countries, youth unemployment rate ranges from about 30% (Georgia) to 76% (Djibouti). Globally, over 200 million young people are unemployed (Statista, 2025). It is disturbing that, globally, about 20% of young people were not in education, employment or training (NEET) in 2023. In Northern Africa, Western and Central and Southern Asia, the percentage of NEET was nearly 30 (United Nations, 2024). Globally, about 40% of women are NEET, and in Central and Southern Asia, nearly 50% of young women were NEET (United Nations, 2024). Due to demographic changes, a large proportion of young people on one hand, and a lack of planning and employment creation policies on the other, have contributed to significant youth unemployment. In 2023, about 269 million young people were not in education or work (United Nations, 2024). This is a significant challenge for the social development goal of full employment.

Youth Employment Strategies

In national contexts, governments, communities, the private sector and civil society together, in coordination, develop and implement strategies for those youth NEET to engage them in suitable education, employment and training programmes by introducing incentives to increase take-up rates. It is equally important to create employment opportunities. Ready workforce without employment can frustrate young people. Professional psycho-social enabling support needs to be provided where needed. Where self-motivation, capital and economic conditions permit, self-employment and entrepreneurship may be encouraged with continuing support and guidance. Special incentives may be offered to young women to participate in education and training that results into employment so as to significantly reduce their number relating to NEET.

The Informal Sector

For the goal of full employment and decent work, the informal sector is both a solution and a problem. It is a practical solution because the informal sector provides employment opportunities to a large number of people; otherwise, people will be unemployed. It is a problem because, often, the labour can be easily exploited, paid less, with little protection and without any benefits in terms of health, gratuity and pension provisions. The SDG Progress Report 2024 shows that over 2 billion people were in informal employment in 2023. This is nearly 60% of the total global workforce. But in least-developed countries, nearly 90% worked in informal employment. About 90% of women were in informal work in sub-Saharan Africa and Central and Southern Asia. Even developed countries are not free from informal work, as over 11% were in informal work in Europe and Northern America (United Nations, 2024). The vast nature and heterogeneity and a lack of understanding of and support for the informal work make it difficult to find effective uniform solutions. The informal sector is a significant challenge for most of the world, but its contribution to the economy cannot be underestimated, as its share in gross domestic productivity is substantial.

Making the Informal Sector Fair

For a range of practical reasons, the reality of the informal sector that provides employment to a large number of people cannot be abandoned. Laws, policies and programmes should focus on making the informal sector fair by education and training, by raising awareness of the rights and responsibilities of employers and employees, and by introducing contributory labour welfare schemes. By incentivising (reduced tax or full exemption), efforts to link them to the formal economy should continue. Bureaucratic hurdles should be removed so that they can access needed resources such as finance, banking services and insurance schemes. It is also important to provide the necessary infrastructure for safe production and fair marketing purposes. Rathan than uniform, heterogenous solutions suiting the contexts may be pursued. Where feasible and appropriate, technology transfer and adaptation may be encouraged (Srinivas, 2024). Strategically building and expanding the formal sector and providing easy access to it is critical.

The Situation of International Migrant Workers

ILO estimates that globally there were nearly 168 million migrant workers, which constitutes nearly 5% of the global labour force (ILO, 2024b). About 12 million were unemployed migrants. Over 60% were men, and nearly 40% were women. Majority of migrant workers are concentrated in high-income countries in Northern, Southern and Western Europe, Northern America and the Arab states. Over 80% of women and 60% of men were employed in the service sector. Unemployment rate was higher among migrant workers compared to locals. Irrespective of the cause of their migration, their working conditions are an important issue, as some of them are vulnerable to low wages, unfair recruitment practices, unsafe working conditions, discrimination, human rights violations and trafficking (UN Global Compact, 2025; Wright & Clibborn, 2019).

Strategies to Protect Migrant Workers

ILO instruments and national-level laws relating to migrant workers and domestic workers should be strictly implemented. Educate and raise awareness of rights and responsibilities of migrant workers and employers. Responsible leaders should stop using migrant workers for political purposes. It is critical to recognise that migrant workers, on the one hand, fill an important gap in meeting caring needs and contribute to local economy in the destination countries and on the other, through remittances, contribute to their origin country. As noted by Neher et al. (2025), migrants’ remittances were equivalent to Official Development Assistance. Six steps comprising a policy commitment, assessing and addressing impact, tracking and communicating performance and remedying grievances (UN Global Compact, 2025) are worth implementing.

Green Economy

In response to the urgent global need to reduce carbon emissions and curb environmental degradation, governments worldwide are adopting policies aimed at transitioning to a green economy. As emphasised by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC), climate change exacerbates existing vulnerabilities and introduces new risks to both natural and human systems, with disadvantaged populations disproportionately affected regardless of a country’s level of development (IPCC, 2015, p. 13). This shift toward a greener economy has far-reaching consequences for the world of work, altering the types and nature of employment. According to the United Nations, climate mitigation strategies influence employment in several ways: they generate new jobs in low-carbon sectors, lead to job substitution as systems become more efficient, result in job losses as high-emission industries are phased out, and cause job redefinition as workers in traditional roles adapt to greener practices (United Nations, 2020). At a broader level, the transition to environmentally sustainable economies can result in economic restructuring, job and livelihood threats and adverse income distribution (Poshen, 2017).

The green economy is increasingly recognised as a vital pathway for job creation, environmental sustainability and broader economic revitalisation. Sectors such as renewable energy, sustainable agriculture and eco-friendly construction are particularly promising for generating secure employment and addressing poverty. The International Labour Organization (ILO) estimates that green economic transitions could generate around 18 million jobs globally (ILO, 2018). Nevertheless, the potential of green jobs to ensure full employment and uphold decent work standards is not guaranteed (Babacan, 2022). It relies heavily on the effectiveness of national policies and the inclusiveness of transition strategies. Reflecting this, the Paris Agreement (United Nations, 2015b) explicitly acknowledges in its preamble the importance of ‘a just transition of the workforce and the creation of decent work and quality jobs in accordance with nationally defined development priorities’.

Despite these promising synergies, not all green jobs currently meet the decent work criteria (ILO, 2016). Criticisms of green job creation programmes are that they are short-term and donor- or investor-driven, lacking integration into national employment strategies, with a mismatch between industry needs and the skills of existing workers, worker displacement and a lack of appropriate long-term planning (Babacan, 2022; Megersa, 2021). Research indicates that green jobs are often in precarious, informal employment and unregulated sectors. There is evidence to suggest that indicate that green jobs have had low earnings, higher rates of workplace accidents and lower occupational health coverage compared to traditional jobs, there was less job security (ILO, 2018; Moreira et al., 2018; Mpunga, 2025; van der Ree, 2017).

Strategies Green Economy and Just Work Transitions

A transition to a green economy needs to be designed to generate decent work, ensuring both climate goals and improved worker safeguards are met concurrently (Pollin, 2020; Poshen, 2017). To fully realise the dual promise of decent work and green jobs, a number of integrated strategies are required.

First, there is a need to minimise the impacts of job losses and workforce displacement by the existing workforce. This will require compensatory policy measures. The second is to ensure there are opportunities in the emerging green economy and that green jobs are inclusive and measures for fostering workforce participation are in place for the co-benefits of green economy to be maximised. Investment in education, training and upskilling is a major aspect of managing transitions so that workers do not suffer unduly due to mismatch between environmental targets and work readiness. Third, there needs to be strong measures ensuring a strong rights framework to comply with requirements for decent work. The United Nations’ guidance on the measures needed for includes development of skills and training for green jobs, developing green enterprises, promoting active labour policies, minimising hardship for workers and providing social protection (United Nations, 2020). There is a need to address the specific needs of vulnerable workers, including supported access to education and training, adequate labour laws, social benefits such as pension, health insurance and sick leave, measures against unsafe work conditions, including legislation against harassment and violence (Babacan, 2020, 2022; van der Ree, 2017).

Forced Child Labour

Forced child labour remains a serious global issue affecting millions of children. According to the ILO, globally, 160 million children aged 5–17 were engaged in forced child labour in 2020 (ILO & UNICEF, 2020a, 2020b). New research suggests that global child labour may be severely underreported and estimates that the real number could be over 373 million children worldwide, nearly 2.5 times higher than official estimates (Lichand & Wolf, 2023). UNICEF (2023) posits that one in five children in the world’s poorest countries engage in potentially harmful work. It is estimated that a significant proportion of these are involved in hazardous or work conditions, threatening their health and development (Lichand & Wolf, 2023; Phillips & Mieres, 2015; UNICEF, 2021). Children engaged in forced labour often experience chronic health issues, emotional trauma and stunted development (ILO & UNICEF, 2020a; Mallick & Pramanik, 2022). One-third of the children in forced child labour do not attend school (ILO & UNICEF, 2020b).

Child labour is strongly linked to poverty, economic instability, lack of employment opportunities for adults, increasing informal and precarious labour market conditions, disruptions such as COVID-19, conflict and forced migration and other forms of crisis. It is estimated that every 1% rise in poverty is associated with a 0.7% increase in child labour (ILO & UNICEF, 2020a; Jariego, 2021; Mallick & Pramanik, 2022). Children from displaced families or conflict regions are particularly vulnerable (Maddern, 2013). A significant challenge is the blurred line between child labour, forced migration and human trafficking.

While there are international conventions and national regulations in many countries against forced child labour, enforcement remains inconsistent due to poor implementation and monitoring, lack of political will, corruption and cultural acceptance of child work reduce the effectiveness of these protective frameworks (Ahmed, 2011; Padala, 2020). Poor legal definitions and inadequate international enforcement hinder effective interventions (Puente Aba & María, 2018).

Eliminating Forced Child Labour

Target 8.7 of SDG 8 calls for the elimination of all forms of child labour by 2025. Forced child labour is a multi-layered problem requiring systemic solutions—addressing full range of vulnerabilities that children face. These include multisector collaboration for addressing the root causes of the issue and finding sustainable solutions for poverty, improving access to education, enforcing human rights and labour laws, adequate social protections, strengthening implementation and monitoring of modern slavery laws and ensuring ethical supply chains and global trade practices. While legal frameworks exist, addressing the issue requires coordinated global action, poverty alleviation and stronger enforcement mechanisms. There is a need to develop and implement social programmes that bring about change to harmful social and cultural norms which support and perpetuate child labour (UNICEF, 2021).

Gender Gaps

In most societies around the world, the relations of power between men and women are experienced differently, with major disparities for women (Babacan, 2022). Women still encounter numerous obstacles that restrict their access to employment and diminish the quality of jobs they can obtain. These challenges are embedded in structural inequalities, biased social norms and economic policies that overlook the distinct needs of both women and men. The global gender gap parity index by the World Economic Forum (WEF) measures gender-based gaps for 146 countries in four key areas: economic participation and opportunity, educational attainment, health and survival and political empowerment. In 2024, the global gender gap was 68.5%, indicating that 31.5% of the gap remains (WEF, 2024, p. 5). The parity is not evenly distributed across the four areas. Educational attainment as well as health and survival have improved over the years and enjoy much closer to parity between men and women (96% and 94%, respectively) (WEF, 2018). However, women’s economic participation and opportunity has regressed, with gender parity being 60.5%, impacting labour force participation and economic inclusion (WEF, 2024, p. 20). In political participation of women is even lower at 22.5% (WEF, 2024, p. 20). Despite significant advances in gender equality over the last few decades, progress in closing gender gaps remains slow. At the current pace, achieving full gender parity globally is projected to take 134 years, extending well beyond the 2030 SDG target (WEF, 2024).

The following data demonstrate that there are major challenges for women securing decent work in areas such as workforce participation; precarious, informal and casual work; wage equity; childcare, legal protections; access to education; digital divide; access to finance and education, particularly in STEM-related training and other key areas. Women endure pervasive gender pay gaps due to occupational segregation, career interruptions and workplace discrimination (UN Women & DESA, 2024). For example, women earn 77 cents for every dollar paid to men; 98 economies have enacted legislation mandating equal pay for women for work of equal value with fewer than one in five have adopted pay transparency measures or enforcement; of 190 economies assessed, more than one-third have laws constraining women’s decision to work, 43 economies have no laws on sexual harassment in the workplace; and women carry disproportionate share of unpaid care and domestic work (75%) without formal support (ILO, 2025a; World Bank, 2024). The labour force participation rates for women aged 25–54 in 2022 were 61.4% compared to 90.6% for men (UN Women, 2024). Greater numbers of women are in informal, casualised and vulnerable employment and gender-based segregation has resulted in the over-representation of women of those sectors with the worst pay/working conditions and which are particularly vulnerable to crises like COVID-19 (Babacan, 2022; ILO, 2025b). Women have less access to productive resources, finance and entrepreneurship opportunities (Babacan, 2022; World Bank, 2024). Vulnerable employment often leaves women without any protection of labour laws; social protection benefits such as pension, health insurance or paid sick leave; unsafe work conditions and at risk of harassment and violence. Even in developed economies, women’s average pension is more than 30% lower than men’s (UN Women, 2024, p. 147). The progress report on SDGs and gender highlights many areas in which it finds gender parity and concludes that the world is still falling short on its commitments to women and girls (UN Women & DESA, 2024).

Equality of Outcomes for Women

Comprehensive and context-specific policy interventions—centred on care infrastructure, inclusive labour laws, flexible employment, fiscal reforms and empowerment mechanisms—are essential to removing barriers and achieving gender-equitable access to decent work. Policy measures are needed to target both structural inequalities and institutional shortcomings that limit women’s economic and work opportunities. These include macroeconomic policies relating to inclusive economic and fiscal development; strategic measures that reduce informal employment and increase access to formal sectors; improve educational and training completions for women; legislative measures to ensure protection of work and pay conditions, particularly relating to wage parity, discrimination and safety; improve legislative frameworks (with emphasis on implementation and monitoring); developing gender responsive employment measures (including maternity leave, flexible work arrangements and recognising women’s leadership); strengthening to international obligations under CEDAW; job creation that prioritises women and provides support for women’s economic leadership and entrepreneurship; targeted measures toward gendered nature of labour market and job transitions including climate and digital transitions; investment in support for caring responsibilities; and gender disaggregated data and research (ILO, 2025b; UN Women & DESA, 2024; World Bank, 2024).

Digital Technology and AI

The fourth industrial revolution—marked by the rise of AI, robotics, cloud computing, blockchain and big data—is transforming global economic and social systems (AlphaBeta, 2017; Schwab, 2016). Digital technologies and platform economies are reshaping markets and labour structures, disrupting traditional regulatory models and concentrating power in a few global tech companies (Donner & Locke, 2019; Kenney et al., 2021). While digital connectivity facilitates global exchange and innovation, it also challenges fair competition and decent work standards across sectors like retail, transport and finance.

Projections suggest that automation will significantly alter or eliminate many existing jobs, though it will also create new opportunities. The World Economic Forum (2018) anticipates 150 million new technology jobs by 2028, with digital skills required for 77% of jobs by 2030. However, the shift from routine tasks to skill-based roles demands widespread upskilling (Forrester Research, 2021; OECD, 2019). OECD (2019, p. 3) identifies that 14% of existing jobs will disappear, with a further 32% will be radically altered as tasks are automated. These changes risk exacerbating labour market inequalities, particularly for those without access to training and digital infrastructure (Babacan, 2024; ILO, 2021b). Increased outsourcing and casual digital workforce, many workers are identified as having limited freedom and autonomy to organise their work, are treated as intermediaries, and have little bargaining power in negotiating work contracts (Berg et al., 2018; ILO, 2021a). Digital economy workers are frequently not in trade unions and are unable to engage in the collective or enterprise bargaining that would allow them to have their employment issues addressed, all of which leaves them vulnerable to exploitation (Graham, 2019). There is also redefining of the relationship between formal education and access to work (Teubner et al., 2019) with lessening correlation between higher education and level of income (Herrmann et al., 2019). It is posited that the development trajectory of the digital economy might push highly educated and skilled workers in developing countries to pursue work under precarious or informal working conditions, with lower pay levels and uncertain work arrangements (World Bank, 2020). Additionally, the factors of inequality are transposed into digital platforms, such as discrimination and exclusion in employment, resulting in the exclusion of women, minorities, First Nations, older adults and non-English speakers (ILO, 2021b). The digital divide remains a gendered one with 37% of women globally not using the internet (ITU, 2022). In developed economies, women make up only 26% of the workforce in data and AI, and 12% in cloud computing and the type of work women do is more likely to be replaced by automation and AI (UN Women & DESA, 2024). As Brynjolfsson and McAfee (2014) caution, the benefits of technological progress may be unevenly distributed, heightening the urgency of inclusive education, reskilling programmes and fair work policies (See also Yadav et al., 2025 in this issue).

Addressing Digital and AI Exclusions

Responding effectively to the complex challenges posed by digital connectivity and AI, governments and institutions will require comprehensive and inclusive policy measures that promote equitable access to decent work, to mitigate new forms of labour market exclusion through addressing issues such as job displacement, upskilling, safeguarding employment conditions and worker well-being (Babacan et al., 2019). Priority needs to be given to investment in programmes that relate to STEM, digital literacy and vocational training to help workers transition into new roles shaped by automation and AI (World Bank, 2020). Extension of social protection policies to ensure access to health care, pensions and unemployment benefits and basic income to support individuals who are marginalised in the digital transition (Graham, 2019). Infrastructure investment and subsidised access to internet and technology tools and skill training are essential for digital inclusion (Marshall et al., 2023; Yadav et al., 2025).

Other areas of action relate to revealing of risks regarding income and job insecurity, building mechanisms that enable capability and skills development and identifying who is bearing the risks. Regulatory and policy protections are also critical in this arena, particularly strengthening global instruments and national policies on labour rights and protection. More transformative strategies are needed in relation to inclusive economies and work.

Implementation Challenges

To ensure decent work conditions for employees, ILO has enacted several conventions to protect workers and their safety. These conventions relate to freedom of association and collective bargaining, abolition of child labour and forced labour and workplace discrimination, minimum wage, occupational safety and health and labour administration and inspection. Those nation-states who have ratified these conventions are expected to enact national-level laws, regulations and guidelines, implement them and regularly report compliance. Not all nation-states have ratified all conventions. For example, according to ILO, only 24 countries have ratified all of the 11 fundamental instruments. All 187 member states of the ILO have ratified the Worst Forms of Child Labour Convention, whereas only 83 countries have ratified Occupational Safety and Health Convention. Ratifying a convention does not guarantee that the nation state will translate it. For example, the worst forms of child labour still exist in many countries as the policy has not been effectively implemented. The SDG Progress Report shows that national-level compliance with labour rights (freedom of association and collective bargaining) declined by 7%. It is concerning that ‘Increasing violations and restrictions on civil liberties, especially in union formation and bargaining rights, drive the trend’ (United Nations, 2024, p. 25). Globally, there is a significant gap in providing decent work conditions for workers. This is a significant challenge for all stakeholders, governments, employers and employees.

Strategies for Decent Work

Given the nature of the challenge and gap, systemic, systematic and long-term strategies need to be developed by engaging all the stakeholders. Conduct effective awareness-raising programmes to discuss what is at stake at individual, organisational and institutional levels. Institutional capacity building is necessary so as to enact relevant laws, and develop implementation, compliance and reporting mechanisms. Adequate social protection provisions help people to be protected from unsafe and exploitative working conditions.

Challenges Relating to Solidarity, Inclusion and International Cooperation

To achieve the goal of full and productive employment and decent work, global solidaristic, inclusive and cooperative approaches are necessary, but are not followed to the extent these are needed. Globally, over 450 million people are not able to find jobs, and 4 billion people do not have any form of social protection (ILO, 2024a). Low-income and least-developed countries need enabling international support in terms of knowledge, expertise, resource sharing and technology transfer, but this does not occur on a systematic and regular basis. In many countries, labour laws need to be enacted or strengthened, and robust implementation mechanisms need to be developed. Special attention is needed to include vulnerable groups such as persons with disabilities, youth and women, who can be easily excluded from the mainstream. An ILO (2024a, p. 5) report states that ‘Economic policies – sectoral, fiscal, monetary and financial – are not doing enough for their most valuable asset, their people, to productively contribute to growth and well-being’. Multilateral and interministerial communication, coordination and cooperation also need attention. Within the national contexts, the spirit of solidarity and inclusion should bring together governments, the private sector, civil society and communities to ensure decent work for all, but it is yet to be realised. Small successful experiments such as Global Accelerator Programme (ILO, 2024a) need to be scaled up if found beneficial by local communities.

Strategies to Enhance Solidarity, Inclusion and Cooperation

Trust-building strategies are critical to strengthen solidarity. Positive discrimination policies are needed to include vulnerable groups. North–South and South–South cooperation needs to be enhanced for mutual knowledge and resource sharing. Inter-sectorial and inter-institutional coordination needs to be enhanced. Learnings from the UN-initiated Global Accelerator Programme may be in order, as it has the potential to enhance global solidarity, inclusion and cooperation. It emphasises inclusive, networked, integrated policy approaches, which link social protection and employment policies in the country contexts. It is based on the research evidence that every dollar spent on social protection will return 1.5 dollars over a period of two and half years. It links the SDGs relating to poverty, health and well-being, education, gender equality, decent work, reduced inequalities and global partnerships. It also indirectly contributes to the SDGs relating to ending hunger, clean energy, climate action and institutions. It hopes to create decent jobs in the green, digital and care economies. So far, about 25 countries have committed to this approach (ILO, 2024a).

Information Gaps

There is a significant information gap regarding the achievement of SDG 8, full employment and decent work. The SDG Progress Report (United Nations, 2024) indicated that only over 50% of countries provided data relating to SDG 8 targets, though this has improved from over 30% in 2019. That means there is no information about employment and work conditions from nearly 50% of countries (United Nations, 2024). One of the critical issues relating to socio-legal legislations such as labour laws—whether it is the minimum wage, child labour or unsafe working conditions—is that it is difficult to implement and record violations, as many tend to not to report and document due to a range of reasons: ignorance, desperate need and power differentials in the work setting. Although legal provisions and labour inspectors exist, whatever is reported appears to be the tip of the iceberg. Data relating to decent work conditions are needed from all 187 member of countries of the ILO. The current SDG report shows significant gaps in this area (see Our World in Data Team, 2023).

Better Data Collection and Reporting Strategies

Institutional and individual capacity building and financial allocation are needed to establish better data collection and reporting systems that matches the statistical standards established by the United Nations. Monitoring and documenting the implementation of socio-legal legislation call for raising awareness of the significance of issues relating to decent work and cooperation from all stakeholders to report them.

Policy Implications and Future Directions

The challenges and insights outlined in this article call for a fundamental policy reset—one that is inclusive, adaptive and responsive to the multidimensional realities of today’s labour markets. As the global community prepares for the Second World Summit on Social Development in 2025, it is vital that the agenda for full employment and decent work moves beyond aspirational goals to systemic transformation. This requires policymakers to reimagine employment and expand the framework of decent work to reflect technological, social and environmental shifts.

Rethinking employment and the value of labour

Policy frameworks must acknowledge the changing nature of work. As automation and AI replace traditional labour, full employment in its conventional sense becomes increasingly elusive. Policymakers should consider broadening the definition of employment to include unpaid care work, artistic and cultural contributions and other non-market labour that sustains societies. This reframing can facilitate more equitable social recognition and economic support for all forms of meaningful work.

Embedding social protection as a cornerstone of economic justice

In an era where structural constraints limit job availability, universal basic income or comprehensive social protection schemes should be seriously considered. These are not just economic tools but ethical imperatives to support dignity, participation and resilience in the face of job insecurity, crises and systemic transformation. Policies must ensure these systems are inclusive, rights-based and sustainably financed, particularly for countries with limited fiscal space.

Expanding the scope of decent work

The shift toward remote work, platform-based employment and informal arrangements demands an updated definition of decent work that includes flexibility, digital rights and work–life balance. Policymakers must ensure that remote, hybrid or mobile work models uphold the same standards of occupational health and safety, social security and collective bargaining as traditional employment settings.

Integrated, multi-level and multilateral approaches

Achieving full and decent employment requires a whole-of-government and whole-of-society approach, encompassing economic, social, environmental and technological policy domains. National strategies must be integrated with international cooperation, enabling resource sharing, capacity building and joint learning—especially between high-income and low-income countries. Existing models like the Global Accelerator on Jobs and Social Protection demonstrate promising avenues for inclusive and coordinated policy action.

Data-driven and evidence-based governance

Better data collection, monitoring and accountability systems are essential to track progress on SDG 8 targets. Policymakers must invest in national statistical capacity and promote transparency and stakeholder engagement to close data gaps and develop interventions grounded in real-world conditions.

Conclusion

Full and productive employment and decent work for all are challenging and ambitious social development goals. The ideas inherent in social development, well-being of the whole population, call for realisation of such goals. Since the Copenhagen Declaration on Social Development in 1995 and through the MDGs and SDGs, together over a period of 30 years, some progress has occurred against these gaols. Yet the world is far from achieving them.

To meet the goals of full employment and decent work in the face of twenty-first century disruptions, policies must evolve beyond outdated economic paradigms. This means redefining what counts as work, ensuring inclusive protection mechanisms and adopting responsive, rights-based governance models. The upcoming World Summit provides a historic opportunity to not only reaffirm commitments made in Copenhagen but also to reimagine the future of work in line with social justice, sustainability and human dignity.