Sage Journals: Discover world-class research

Abstract

This article investigates the critical barriers hindering progress on Sustainable Development Goal 13 (SDG 13) and identifies enabling strategies to support collaborative, transformative responses essential for achieving sustainable development by 2030. Drawing on recent research and global frameworks, it discusses major challenges/gaps relating to climate change mitigation and adaptation measures. Climate change represents one of the most pressing global challenges of the twenty-first century, with visible impacts that include intensifying extreme weather events, ecosystem disruption and threats to human health and livelihoods. The scientific consensus, notably supported by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC), affirms that human activities are the dominant drivers of global warming. These changes have led to more frequent and severe disasters, such as floods, droughts and wildfires, which disproportionately affect vulnerable populations in regions with low adaptive capacity. Beyond environmental effects, climate change also poses deep social and economic risks by exacerbating resource scarcity, undermining food systems and potentially fuelling conflict. In response, the United Nations established SDG 13, which calls for urgent action to combat climate change by integrating climate measures into national policies, enhancing adaptive capacities and improving education and awareness. While international frameworks like the Paris Agreement offer a foundational road map, translating global ambitions into local action remains a significant challenge. Thus, it calls for a shift from incremental changes to systemic transformation and a just transition.

Keywords

Sustainable Development Goal 13 climate change mitigation adaptation policy

Introduction

Climate change is one of the most urgent and consequential challenges facing humanity in the twenty-first century. Its impacts are increasingly visible, as rising global temperatures intensify extreme weather events, disrupt ecosystems and threaten human health and livelihoods worldwide. Scientific consensus affirms that human activities—chiefly the burning of fossil fuels and widespread deforestation—are the primary drivers of these changes. According to the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC), ‘human influence on the climate system is clear, and recent anthropogenic emissions of greenhouse gases are the highest in history’ (IPCC, 2015, p. 2). These emissions have triggered an accelerating trend of global warming, with repercussions that extend to every continent and ocean.

The consequences of this warming include an upsurge in the frequency and severity of natural disasters—such as floods, hurricanes, droughts and wildfires—which place immense strain on food systems, water resources, infrastructure and public health. These events disproportionately affect vulnerable populations, particularly in developing regions that lack the adaptive capacity to withstand climate shocks. Additionally, shifting weather patterns jeopardise productivity and contribute to resource scarcity, exacerbating inequalities and potentially fuelling conflict. The climate crisis, therefore, is not only an environmental issue but also a profound social and economic one.

In recognition of the urgent need to address climate change, the United Nations established Sustainable Development Goal 13 (SDG 13): Take urgent action to combat climate change and its impacts. SDG 13 emphasises the necessity of strengthening resilience and adaptive capacity to climate-related hazards, integrating climate measures into national policies and improving education and awareness of climate change mitigation. While global agreements such as the Paris Agreement have set important frameworks, translating these commitments into tangible, sustained action remains a considerable challenge. The gap between ambition and implementation is stark, and progress remains uneven across regions and sectors.

This article explores the ongoing challenges and barriers to achieving SDG 13, particularly in the context of rapidly evolving climate dynamics. It also examines gaps in current policy and practice that hinder progress and highlights enablers to accelerate climate action. In doing so, it underscores the need for collaborative, multi-level responses and transformative thinking to meet the climate goals that are essential to the broader 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development.

This article examines the critical challenges and structural barriers hindering the achievement of SDG 13, including insufficient mitigation targets, fragmented climate governance and inadequate integration of climate action into national development strategies. It analyses gaps in policy coherence, climate finance, public awareness and workforce transitions that continue to delay effective implementation. Particular attention is given to the lack of global progress, the disproportionate impact on vulnerable populations and the need for climate justice in shaping policy responses. In addition to identifying these obstacles, the article highlights transformative strategies to accelerate action, such as investing in sustainable infrastructure, leveraging green technologies, supporting just transitions in the labour market and embedding traditional knowledge into climate governance. Drawing on recent research and global frameworks, the article underscores the necessity of inclusive, cross-sectoral and locally grounded approaches to ensure that climate action aligns with broader SDGs. Ultimately, it calls for a shift from incremental changes to systemic transformation in order to achieve SDG 13 within the limited time frame set by the 2030 Agenda.

Background

The Copenhagen Declaration on Social Development, adopted at the 1995 World Summit for Social Development, did not explicitly focus on climate change. However, it recognised the interdependence of social development, economic progress and environmental sustainability. Among its core commitments were eradicating poverty, promoting full employment and fostering social integration. While the Declaration primarily targeted social development, it acknowledged that environmental degradation and unsustainable use of natural resources threaten long-term development. It emphasised sustainable development as a guiding principle, setting the stage for later, more targeted environmental goals like the Millennium Development Goals (MDGs) and SDGs.

The MDG 7, established by the United Nations in 2000, aimed to ‘ensure environmental sustainability’. It reflected global recognition of the integral role environmental health plays in sustainable development and poverty reduction. The goal was structured around key targets addressing biodiversity, sustainable access to safe drinking water and sanitation, and improvements in the lives of slum dwellers. The core targets included reversing the loss of environmental resources (Target 7A), reducing biodiversity loss (Target 7B), access to safe drinking water and sanitation (Target 7C) and achieving improvements in the lives of slum dwellers (Target 7D).

MDG 7 laid the foundation for a more comprehensive and integrated approach adopted in the SDGs. Environmental sustainability is now addressed across multiple SDGs, particularly SDG 6: Clean Water and Sanitation; SDG 7: Affordable and Clean Energy; SDG 11: Sustainable Cities and Communities; SDG 13: Climate Action; SDG 14 and 15: Life Below Water and Life on Land.

The Paris Agreement, adopted in 2015, represents a landmark international commitment to limit global warming to well below 2°C above pre-industrial levels, ideally to 1.5°C. Achieving this requires transformative changes in energy systems, transportation, agriculture and land use. The Paris Agreement outlines global commitments to reduce the threat of climate change and efforts to strengthen the capacity of countries to deal with its negative impacts.

SDG 13: Climate Action

SDG 13 aims to take urgent action to combat climate change and its impacts. It includes targets on integrating climate measures into policies, strengthening resilience and improving education and awareness of climate change. SDG 13 Climate Action is unique, as it not only advances sustainable development and improves human security and well-being, but it is also critical for planetary survival.

SDG 13 consists of five main action targets:

Strengthen resilience and adaptive capacity to climate-related hazards and natural disasters in all countries.

Integrate climate change measures into national policies, strategies and planning.

Improve education, awareness-raising and human and institutional capacity on climate change mitigation, adaptation, impact reduction and early warning.

Implement the commitment undertaken by developed-country parties to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) to provide financial support to developing countries.

Promote mechanisms for raising capacity for effective climate change-related planning and management, focusing on least-developed countries and small island developing states.

These actions aim to mitigate the impacts of climate change and keep the temperature from rising above 2°C; enhance adaptation to the consequences of climate change and strengthen governance mechanisms to address climate change.

Major Challenges/Gaps Relating to Climate Change Mitigation and Adaptation Measures

Despite increased global awareness and action, progress on SDG 13 remains inadequate. Global greenhouse gas emissions continue to rise, with 2023 reaching record levels (Archer & Males, 2024; Benjamin et al., 2024; UNEP, 2024). Although many countries have adopted climate policies, implementation and enforcement are inconsistent. It is now known that global warming will exceed 1.5°C, significantly challenging SDG 13’s core goals (Archer & Males, 2024). While there are commitments from nation states, there are insufficient implementation actions (Benjamin et al., 2024). Moreover, SDG 13 is often implemented without adequate attention to climate justice, which perpetuates existing vulnerabilities and inequities (Calzadilla, 2021).

The diversity of locals across different regions in the world produces different challenges and opportunities for nation-states in the implementation of SDG 13.

An overview of the key issues and challenges in climate mitigation and adaptation measures includes:

Limited Mitigation Targets and Actions

Countries around the world are not meeting global gas mitigation targets, with global greenhouse gas emissions setting a new record in 2023, with a 1.3% increase from 2022 levels (UNEP, 2024, p. xii). There are large disparities between the current, per capita and historic emissions of emitters and world regions. The G20 countries produce 77% of global gas emissions, with countries such as the USA and Russia producing three times the world average (UNEP, 2024). Of the parties to the Paris Agreement, 90% have revised or replaced their initial nationally determined contributions (NDCs), which means that ‘progress in ambition and action since the initial NDCs plateaued and countries are still off track to deliver on the globally insufficient mitigation pledges for 2030’ (UNEP, 2024, p. xiii).

There are multiple challenges towards mitigation action. These include a lack of awareness and understanding by policymakers about how global milestones and sector-specific mitigation efforts translate to national interventions; a lack of insights into sectoral mitigation potentials and limited assessment of industry-specific benchmarks for sectoral transitions in areas such as energy, transport, agriculture, aviation and so on; knowledge and skill levels of policymakers and how change can be scaled up quickly across the nation (Messerli et al., 2019; UNEP, 2024).

Fragmented Governance, Lack of Political Will and Institutional Capacity

A significant barrier to implementing SDG 13 is the fragmentation of climate governance structures within national governments. Despite international agreements like the Paris Agreement, many countries fall short in aligning national policies with SDG 13 targets. Weak governance, insufficient climate legislation and competing political priorities hinder progress. Although the Paris Agreement provides a legal framework, implementation is hampered by inadequate national commitments and accountability mechanisms (Popovski, 2024). Many nations have developed climate action plans, but these are often not well-integrated into national and sub-national policies and have weak coordination among governmental levels. Siloed approaches and poor institutional capacity at the local level hinder effective implementation. Adaptation efforts remain underfunded and inadequately executed, with a disproportionate focus on mitigation policies driven by international obligations rather than local climate risks (Mthembu & Nhamo, 2022). Countries with diverse development needs struggle to balance climate action with economic growth, leading to uneven progress across regions (Pandey & Asif, 2022).

Disproportionate Impacts

Climate change disproportionately affects vulnerable populations, particularly those in developing countries who contribute the least to the problem but are most at risk. Hence, climate action is not only an environmental imperative but also a matter of social justice. As pointed out by the IPCC, ‘climate change will amplify existing risks and create new risks for natural and human systems. Risks are unevenly distributed and are generally greater for disadvantaged people and communities in countries at all levels of development’ (IPCC, 2015, p. 13). The Paris Agreement in 2015 identified the need for just transitions and included the following statement in its preamble: ‘Taking into account the imperatives of a just transition of the workforce and the creation of decent work and quality jobs in accordance with nationally defined development priorities …’ (Paris Agreement, 2015). It is accepted that climate change disproportionately affects the world’s poor, the majority of whom are women and children (Alam et al., 2015; Babacanr, 2022, 2024). The most vulnerable groups have been identified as female-headed households, children, persons with disabilities, indigenous peoples and ethnic minorities, landless tenants, migrant workers, displaced persons, sexual and gender minorities, older people and other socially marginalised groups (World Bank, 2023). The root causes of their vulnerability are due to a range of systemic and geographic factors such as geographical locations, their financial, socio-economic, cultural and gender status, and their access to resources, services, decision-making power and justice (World Bank, 2023). There is a need to examine ‘just transitions’ to decarbonised economies, as climate change can become embroiled in economic displacement, unemployment, externalities and human rights concerns (Babacan, 2020; Babacan & Gopalkrishnan, 2021; Sovacool et al., 2021). While SDG 13 is inextricably linked with other goals, such as poverty reduction, access to education, water and clean energy, there is often a lack of integrated policymaking, which results in missed opportunities for synergistic action. Climate justice and equity considerations are often overlooked in favour of economic goals (Filho et al., 2023).

Insufficient Climate Finance and Private Sector Engagement

Climate finance, a critical element for developing nations, remains insufficient and falls short of the annual $100 billion target to mobilise both public and private sources. The Green Climate Fund (GCF) was established under the UNFCCC as a key mechanism to support developing countries in mitigation and adaptation efforts by channelling climate finance from developed nations (Pauw et al., 2002). Despite the 2009 Copenhagen Accord commitment for developed countries to mobilise $100 billion annually by 2020, this target has consistently been unmet, undermining trust and progress in global climate negotiations. Climate finance remains a core challenge for many nations amidst competing urgent priorities. Global climate finance expenditure reached approximately $1.3 trillion in 2021–2022, marking a substantial increase from the $803 billion reported in the previous biennium (2019–2020). Despite this growth, the volume remains far below the estimated $4.3 trillion annually needed by 2030 to align with a 1.5°C pathway under the Paris Agreement (UNFCCC, 2024). Mitigation finance continues to dominate, accounting for around 70%–80% of total flows, while adaptation finance—although growing—lags significantly, comprising less than 20%. Notably, grants make up the bulk of adaptation finance, in contrast to the loan-heavy nature of mitigation support (UNFCCC, 2024). The implementation at national levels identifies that public funding is limited, and private sector investment in climate resilience and mitigation is often constrained by weak policy incentives and underdeveloped financial instruments. There is a pressing need to develop innovative financing models that can mobilise private sector contributions and de-risk investments in climate-resilient infrastructure (Chirambo, 2021). The report also highlights persistent challenges in tracking domestic public finance and private sector contributions, particularly in developing countries, and calls for enhanced transparency, consistent methodologies and greater support to close the gap between current commitments and climate action targets.

Public Awareness and Societal Engagement Gaps

Public awareness and behavioural change are critical to achieving SDG 13, yet awareness remains uneven across different societal groups. Efforts to build climate literacy and behavioural change through education are still underdeveloped. Misconceptions, social pressure and insufficient institutional support hinder climate action at the community level (Lull et al., 2022). While nation-states have reported climate change in education curricula, an analysis of national curriculum frameworks in 100 countries reveals that nearly half (47%) do not even mention climate change (UN, 2023). The focus and emphasis of awareness to action also vary. For example, a study in 2020 in South Korea revealed that the general public showed higher awareness of early warning indicators, while corporations focused more on mitigation, and the government prioritised adaptation efforts. This uneven understanding can result in misaligned priorities and reduce collective climate action. Moreover, the lack of awareness metrics in SDG 13.3 makes it difficult to track progress on education and capacity-building objectives (Hwang et al., 2021; Priatna & Khan, 2024).

Short-term Policy Horizons

Climate mitigation and adaptation strategies require long-term time horizons. The policy and political process, typically 3–5 years, often discourages long-term investments required to mitigate and adapt to climate change (Gazmararian, 2024). Additionally, policymakers with limited time horizons tend to undervalue future climate costs, compromising long-term outcomes (Bartolomeo et al., 2020).

Barriers to Innovation and Technology Uptake

While renewable technologies and climate innovations exist, adoption remains slow due to high costs, a lack of technical expertise and minimal policy incentives. This is especially true in emerging economies, for example, in the energy sector where fossil fuels still dominate energy portfolios, often with powerful lobby groups, which prevent uptake and investment in new technologies (Rahman et al., 2025).

Policy Strategies for Transformation

The SDGs cannot be achieved with a business-as-usual approach (Randers et al., 2018); faster and more responses are required to achieve the goals, particularly for transformative resilience and adaptive capacity (Babacan, 2022; Messerli et al., 2019). A recent global overview found that SDG 13 requires trillions of dollars annually to meet climate targets through infrastructure transformation and resilience efforts (Kulkarni et al., 2022). The UN (2023, p. 38) progress report argues that to curb climate change, rapid, deep and sustained carbon emissions reductions in all sectors are vital. Leveraging SDG synergies, the focus areas for accelerated mitigation and adaptation measures suggested by the UN (2023) include increased finance, political commitment, coordinated policies, international cooperation, ecosystem stewardship and inclusive governance.

To achieve SDG 13 (Climate Action), the policy focus needs to target seven key areas, including: 1.

Inter-linkages between national priorities and SDG transitions

Making progress on SDG 13 is complex and requires a rethink in national economic, social and environmental policies (Newell & Carter, 2024; Plag & Jules-Plag, 2020). Climate considerations must be embedded across national development plans, sectoral strategies (e.g., energy, agriculture, transport) and budgeting processes to ensure that climate adaptation and mitigation are not treated as isolated initiatives but as integral elements of economic and social development planning. This integrated approach strengthens policy coherence, avoids maladaptation and ensures efficient use of financial and institutional resources. Research demonstrates that when climate change adaptation is mainstreamed across sectors through cross-ministerial coordination and consistent planning frameworks, the resulting policies are more effective, especially in managing long-term risks and aligning with SDGs (England et al., 2018). Moreover, recent methodological assessments using logical frameworks show that regional and sectoral plans often lack alignment with national climate objectives, highlighting the need for regular plan updates and climate-relevant indicators (Ledda et al., 2024). Additional evidence from climate governance reviews suggests that many existing development policies are limited to short-term disaster response rather than long-term adaptation, and evidence suggests the need for structured mainstreaming of climate risks into national and sectoral planning to ensure resilience (England et al., 2016). There is a need for the management of contradictory processes and goals, assessment tools and evidence for policymaking, and understanding the impact of trade-offs (Newell & Daley, 2024). It also requires investment in infrastructure, human capacity and systems and processes that are enablers of transition. 2.

Accelerating key industry sector transformation to sustainable and renewable options through addressing supply and demand side

Nation-states are often bound by historical industry sectors, which lock them into particular pathways (Heras, 2024; Newell & Carter, 2024). Domestic material factors (i.e., resource availability, trade and other economic dependencies, education and poverty, lobby groups) influence how governments frame the issues and translate global commitments into domestic policies (Heras, 2024; Höhne et al., 2023). However, to accelerate transformation, the role of policy is not just the facilitation of existing markets and their expansion, but also to enable counter-narratives to emerge and be supported (Wright et al., 2022).

Accelerating change for mitigation is urgent and will require both supply and demand-side policy interventions (Heras, 2024; Newell & Carter, 2024). Supply-side policy measures aim to govern, regulate and ultimately curtail global heating industry activities such as fossil fuels (Heras, 2024). Policy measures can range from a range of measures, including removal of subsidies for activities that increase emissions, mapping and coordinating pathways to transition (including gap assessments between traditional and climate-friendly production options), providing compensatory measures for decommissioned production, supporting proven sustainable and cost-effective alternatives and incentivising transitions with appropriate infrastructure and workforce skills (Harrison & Bang, 2022; Newell & Carter, 2024). The demand-side measures relate to supporting consumer choice and behaviour change, such as avoiding unsustainable consumption of goods and services, shifting to sustainable options, reducing waste, improving resource use through recovery and reuse and contributing to a circular economy (Creutzig et al., 2022). 3.

Investing in sustainable infrastructure and green technologies

Systemic change across all infrastructure sectors—transport, energy, water and waste—is essential to achieve SDG 13. There is a need for sustainable finance policies tailored to these high-impact sectors (Klaaßen & Steffen, 2023). Infrastructure required to support rapid decarbonisation and withstand unavoidable climate change impacts (Lashof & Neuberger, 2023). Green technologies have been shown to reduce ecological footprints and carbon emissions, suggesting the need for supportive regulatory environments (Tiwari et al., 2024). Policies that support strategic, cross-sector infrastructure planning, involving key sectors such as water, energy, waste and transport, can shift towards decarbonised economies and sustainable resource use (Adshead et al., 2019). Policy initiatives can include green procurement and finance strategies to guide infrastructure development; building the capacity of local governments and energy, transport and urban/rural development agencies; enhancing digital innovation ecosystems; incentivising the corporate sector for green investment outlays; repurposing high-value assets and investment in climate-smart infrastructure (Dolan, 2021; Lashof & Neuberger, 2023). Many sectors, like aviation, steel and cement, need targeted technology research and development (R&D), carbon capture infrastructure and policy coordination for net-zero transition (Davis et al., 2018). Policies can stimulate public-private partnerships (PPPs) through clear environmental standards and provide incentives such as subsidies, tax breaks or risk-sharing mechanisms to stimulate private sector investment (Lee et al., 2021). Governments should integrate climate-focused PPPs into broader regional development strategies and resilience planning, ensuring coordination across sectors and levels of governance (Harmono & Nurhamzah, 2025). 4.

Enhancing adaptive capacity

The COVID-19 pandemic created deep and lasting damage to the social and economic fabric of societies around the world. Developing an effective framework to address COVID-19 is complex and will involve making choices about resources and actions for the short and long term (Babacan, 2020). Much effort has gone into recovery and adaptation. Fundamental principles must be established to guide response and recovery efforts. These principles are well articulated by Hogan and Drew (2020, p. 3), who state that ‘recovery must be about doing high impact interventions and high return investments, as well addressing inequalities and weaknesses in capacities and capabilities that will constrain recovery’.

Encouraging resilience is key to establishing effective climate change policies. Resilience is defined in many ways. It refers to ‘the capacity of given places to resist shocks, recover from unexpected events and sustain a long-term developmental growth path’ (Di Caro, 2017, p. 94). Resilience is often linked with vulnerability, absorption of shock and thriving under uncertainty. Resilience is not only about coping with adversity but to be able to thrive and maximise the full potential of communities and individuals. Social capital, social cohesion, sense of belonging and community spirit, trusted sources of information, ability to collaborate, diversity of economic and other resources available to the community, governance and institutions are key factors in resilience (Dale et al., 2016; Kulig et al., 2013). Adaptive capacity is distributed across systems, relationships and organisations (Babacan, 2020). In that sense, resilience, adaptive capacity and innovation ‘should not be viewed as a singular, isolated trait of a person, family, or community, but rather as a broader and multifaceted capacity’ (Masten & Motti-Stefanidi, 2020, p. 5).

OECD (2014, pp. 6–7) identifies a useful framework for strengthening different types of capacities:

Absorptive capacity: The ability of a system to prepare for, mitigate, or prevent negative impacts, using predetermined coping responses, in order to preserve and restore essential basic structures and functions. This includes coping mechanisms used during periods of shock.

Adaptive capacity: The ability of a system to adjust, modify or change its characteristics and actions to moderate potential future damage and to take advantage of opportunities, so that it can continue to function without major qualitative changes in function or structural identity.

Transformative capacity: The ability to create a fundamentally new system so that the shock will no longer have any impact. This can be necessary when ecological, economic or social structures make the existing system untenable.

It is this transformative capacity that is critical for addressing ecological and inclusive economic resilience. If there is to be a better build, then the focus of effort for resilience needs to be transformative approaches, of systems, processes and capacities. 5.

Promoting climate education and awareness

To achieve SDG 13, policymakers must prioritise widespread public awareness and education on climate change. Research consistently shows that education at all levels—particularly in schools and universities—plays a vital role in building knowledge, fostering critical thinking and encouraging sustainable behaviour (Priatna & Khan, 2024). Student engagement projects and curriculum-embedded activities have shown high effectiveness in enhancing climate literacy and behavioural change (Lull et al., 2022). However, climate education must extend beyond formal settings to include informal workers and underserved populations, where knowledge gaps remain wide. Expanding climate education through workplace programmes, national orientation campaigns, media and accessible resources can ensure broader participation in climate action (Ohunakin et al., 2024). Policies need to be designed with attention to audience-specific engagement, as climate awareness levels differ across sectors such as government, academia, media and industry (Hwang et al., 2021). This implies the need for tailored communication strategies to improve effectiveness. Empowering media institutions to cover climate issues, especially in rural and low-income areas, can bridge information gaps and reinforce action on the ground (Maweu & Paterson, 2019). This may require policymakers to engage in monitoring and refining through the utilisation of digital tools, such as sentiment analysis and public surveys, to track awareness trends and inform adaptive strategies. 6.

Localisation and inclusion of traditional knowledge

While international climate frameworks and national policies provide overarching direction, their effectiveness ultimately depends on implementation at the local level—where climate impacts are most directly felt. Traditional and indigenous knowledge systems, such as community-based land stewardship, seasonal ecological practices and spiritual-ecological worldviews, offer proven place-based strategies for climate adaptation. However, these systems are rarely integrated into formal policy and planning processes. This oversight stems from institutional biases, legal exclusions and a lack of mechanisms to incorporate traditional knowledge (Dale et al., 2016; Negara, Ariza, Widhi Nurjaya, et al., 2025). Compounding the issue is the vast diversity of ecological and cultural contexts, which renders standardised climate policies insufficient. Localisation requires flexible, participatory governance structures, formal recognition of traditional knowledge, legal protection of indigenous rights and capacity-building at the grassroots level. Without these measures, climate policies risk marginalising frontline communities and overlooking valuable adaptation practices. To ensure SDG 13 is inclusive and effective, it is essential for policymakers to support bottom-up approaches, align national frameworks with local realities and promote equitable partnerships that empower communities to co-lead in climate resilience efforts (Boedhihartono, 2010; Dannevig et al., 2022; Negara, Ariza, Wibawa, et al., 2025). 7.

Green economy workforce initiatives

The transition to a low-carbon economy requires reshaping labour markets through multiple pathways of employment change. SDG 13 has a direct correlation with SDG 8: Decent Work and Economic Growth. Goal 8 aims to ‘promote sustained, inclusive and sustainable economic growth, full and productive employment and decent work for all’. Fostering job creation in expanding green sectors such as renewable energy, energy efficiency and sustainable infrastructure, driven by increased investment and policy incentives, is critical (Babacan, 2024; Babacan et al., 2019; UN, 2020). Impacts of job substitution and change processes for existing roles, which are altered and replaced by new functions, need to be supported while at the same time phasing out jobs in carbon-intensive industries. Job redefinition occurs where the tasks and required competencies of existing occupations evolve in response to green innovations. These changes demand substantial investments in the right retraining, upskilling and education, appropriate social protections, as well as inclusive labour policies to ensure a just transition and that workers are not displaced and excluded from the labour market (Babacan, 2022). Recent evidence shows that green transitions, when supported by appropriate environmental subsidies and public investment, can significantly boost employment at both regional and enterprise levels (Zhang et al., 2024). Similarly, research highlights that green technology innovation enhances job growth, particularly in non-polluting sectors and state-owned enterprises, by fostering persistent and widespread labour demand (Jiang et al., 2024). However, the extent of job disruption varies significantly across industries and countries, requiring tailored policy responses that include financial support, skills development and long-term planning for workforce resilience.

Conclusion

Achieving SDG 13 requires a paradigm shift from fragmented, incremental measures to integrated and transformative climate governance. The challenges highlighted in this article—including insufficient mitigation targets, weak institutional capacity, climate finance deficits and marginalisation of vulnerable populations—underscore the inadequacy of current responses to the scale and urgency of the climate crisis. Moreover, the uneven implementation of climate measures, short-term policy thinking, and limited public awareness in individual nation-states collectively hamper global efforts to reduce greenhouse gas emissions and build climate resilience. The disproportionate burden on developing countries, coupled with the lack of cohesive and inclusive policymaking, further intensifies the need for climate justice and just transitions that prioritise equity and participation across all sectors of society. There is a clear disparity in adaptation readiness between high-income and low-income countries. Developed nations are better equipped to implement adaptive measures due to their financial resources, infrastructure and governance capabilities. Conversely, many developing countries suffer from low adaptive capacity, making them more vulnerable to climate impacts. Addressing this imbalance requires global support mechanisms focused on technology transfer, education and investment in adaptation infrastructure (Saeed et al., 2023). There is also an urgent need to recognise and incorporate traditional knowledge in mitigation and adaptation to climate change.

Moving forward, governments and stakeholders must pursue systemic reforms that integrate climate action into national development agendas, supported by long-term investment in sustainable infrastructure, green technology and adaptive capacity. Strengthening PPPs, mainstreaming climate education and incorporating indigenous knowledge systems into climate governance are critical to fostering inclusive, place-based solutions. Additionally, transitioning to a green economy requires workforce development strategies that anticipate and manage labour shifts while promoting innovation. By embracing cross-sector collaboration, evidence-based planning and localised action, the global community can bridge the ambition-implementation gap and realise the goals of SDG 13 as a foundational pillar of the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development.

Finally, a just transition is essential to ensure that climate action does not deepen existing inequalities, but instead creates fair opportunities for all, especially for workers and communities most affected by the shift to a low-carbon economy. This requires inclusive policies that support retraining, social protection and equitable participation in green sectors.

Footnotes

Declaration of Conflicting Interests

The author declared no potential conflicts of interest with respect to the research, authorship and/or publication of this article.

Funding

The author received no financial support for the research, authorship and/or publication of this article.

References

Adshead

, Thacker

, Fuldauer

L. I.

, & Hall

(2019). Delivering on the Sustainable Development Goals through long-term infrastructure planning. Global Environmental Change , 59, 101975.

Alam

, Bhatia

, & Mawby

(2015). Women and climate change: Impact and agency in human rights, security and economic development . Georgetown Institute for Women, Peace and Security.

Archer

, & Males

(2024). Advancing action on the UN Sustainable Development Goals. PLoS Climate , 3(1), e0000341.

Babacan

(2020). Women and economic dimensions of climate change. In Chaiechi

(Ed.), Economic effects of natural disasters (pp. 77–95). Elsevier.

Babacan

(2022). After COVID-19: Building inclusive and sustainable economies for resilience. In Chaiechi

& Wood

(Eds.), Community empowerment, sustainable cities, and transformative economies (pp. 7–20). Springer Publications.

Babacan

(2024, October 23). Game changing or not: Impacts of advancing technologies on rural and regional workforce in Australia. 3rd international conference on business, economics, management and sustainability: Reskilling horizons: AI, the future of work, and the quest for a resilient, sustainable tomorrow . James Cook University.

Babacan

, Dale

, & McHugh

(2019). QLD rural & regional workforce policy analysis [Policy working paper]. Rural Economies Centre of Excellence and the Cairns Institute, James Cook University.

Babacan

, & Gopalkrishnan

(2021). COVID-19- engaging the most vulnerable. ASEAN Journal of Community Engagement , 5(1), 1–24.

Bartolomeo

, Saltari

, & Semmler

(2020). The effects of political short-termism on transitions induced by pollution regulations. In Dynamic modelling and econometrics in economics and finance . https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-52970-3_6

10.

Benjamin

K. T.

, Osasumwe

O. F.

, Amuche

E. O.

, Rebecca

K. K.

, & Isaa

K. S.

(2024). Navigating climate action in Nigeria: Assessing Sustainable Development Goal 13 implementation and challenges. Journal of Law and Sustainable Development , 12(1), e971. https://doi.org/10.55908/sdgs.v12i1.971

11.

Boedhihartono

A. K.

(2010). Integrating traditional knowledge in climate change adaptation: Perspectives from a community-based forest management system. International Forestry Review , 12(5), 349–360.

12.

Calzadilla

P. V.

(2021). The Sustainable Development Goals, climate crisis and sustained injustices. Oñati Socio-Legal Series , 11(1), 285–314.

13.

Chirambo

(2021). Corporate sector policy innovations for Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) implementation in the Global South: The case of sub-Saharan Africa. Journal of Sustainability Research , 3(2), e210011. https://doi.org/10.20900/JSR20210011

14.

Creutzig

, Niamir

, Bai

, Callaghan

, Cullen

, Diaz-Jose

, Figueroa

, Grubler

, Lamb

W. F.

, Leip

, Masanet

, Mata

, Mattauch

, Minx

J. C.

, Mirasgedis

, Mulugetta

, Nugroho

S. B.

, Pathak

, Perkins

, ... & Ürge-Vorsatz

(2022). Demand-side solutions to climate change mitigation consistent with high levels of well-being. Nature and Climate Change , 12, 36–46.

15.

Dale

, Vella

, Potts

, Voyce

, Stevenson

, Cottrell

, King

, Babacan

, Boon

, Gooch

, & Pert

(2016). Applying social resilience concepts and indicators to support climate adaptation in Tropical North Queensland, Australia. In Knieling

(Ed.), Climate adaptation governance in cities and regions: Theoretical fundamentals and practical evidence (pp. 23–43). Wiley.

16.

Dannevig

, Korsbrekke

T. E.

, & Rauken

(2022). Advancements of Sustainable Development Goals in climate adaptation: A literature review on barriers and enabling factors for local action. Climate and Development , 14(3), 223–234.

17.

Davis

S. J.

, Lewis

N. S.

, Shaner

, Aggarwal

, Arent

, Azevedo

, Benson

S. M.

, Bradley

, Brouwer

, Chiang

Y.-M.

, Clack

C. T. M.

, Cohen

, Doig

, Edmonds

, Fennell

, Field

C. B.

, Hannegan

, Hodge

B.-M.

, Hoffert

M. I.

, ... & Caldeira

(2018). Net-zero emissions energy systems. Science , 360(6396), eaas9793.

18.

Di Caro

(2017). Testing and explaining economic resilience with an application to Italian regions. Papers in Regional Science , 96(1), 93–113.

19.

Dolan

(2021). Systemic perspectives on national infrastructure for a sustainable, resilient net zero future. Frontiers in Built Environment , 7, Article 752765.

20.

England

M. I.

, Dougill

A. J.

, Stringer

L. C.

, Vincent

, Pardoe

, Kalaba

, Mkwambisi

, Namaganda

, & Afionis

(2018). Climate change adaptation and cross-sectoral policy coherence in southern Africa. Regional Environmental Change , 18(7), 2059–2071. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10113-018-1283-0

21.

England

M. I.

, Dougill

A. J.

, Stringer

L. C.

, & Vincent

(2016). Climate change adaptation planning and cross-sectoral policy coherence in southern Africa. Regional Environmental Change , 18, 2059–2071. https://doi.org/10.17169/REFUBIUM-22409

22.

Filho

W. L.

, Wall

, Sálvia

, Dinis

M. A.

, & Mifsud

M. C.

(2023). The central role of climate action in achieving the United Nations’ Sustainable Development Goals. Scientific Reports , 13(1), 20582. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-023-47746-w

23.

Gazmararian

A. F.

(2024). Valuing the future: Changing time horizons and policy preferences. Political Behavior . https://doi.org/10.1007/s11109-024-09965-3

24.

Harmono

, & Nurhamzah

(2025). Policy recommendations for community empowerment in climate change adaptation: A study of the Go Green Pandawara Group campaign in support of SDG 13 climate action. E3S Web of Conferences , 609, Article 05006. https://doi.org/10.1051/e3sconf/202560905006

25.

Harrison

, & Bang

(2022). Supply-side climate policies in major oil-producing countries: Norway’s and Canada’s struggles to align climate leadership with fossil fuel extraction. Global Environmental Politics , 22(4), 129–150.

26.

Heras

(2024). Supply‑side climate policy and fossil fuels in developing countries: A neo‑Gramscian perspective. International Environmental Agreements , 24, 49–74.

27.

Hogan

, & Drew

(2020). Recovering from COVID-19 by investing in people and places . Australia Together.

28.

Höhne

, Kahmann

, & Lohaus

(2023). Translating the norm bundle of an international regime: States’ pledges on climate change around the 2015 Paris conference. Journal of International Relations and Development , 26(1), 185–213.

29.

Hwang

H. S.

, An

, Lee

, Han

, & Lee

C.-H.

(2021). Cross-societal analysis of climate change awareness and its relation to SDG 13: A knowledge synthesis from text mining. Sustainability , 13(10), 5596. https://doi.org/10.3390/su13105596

30.

IPCC. (2015). Climate change 2014: Synthesis report .

31.

Jiang

, He

, Li

, & Shen

(2024). Nexus of digital progress and green performance among Chinese regions. Environment, Development and Sustainability . https://doi.org/10.1007/s10668-024-05629-8

32.

Klaaßen

, & Steffen

(2023). Meta-analysis on necessary investment shifts to reach net zero pathways in Europe. Nature Climate Change , 13, 58–66.

33.

Kulig

J. C.

, Edge

D. S.

, Townshend

, Lightfoot

, & Reimer

(2013). Community resiliency: Emerging theoretical insights. Journal of Community Psychology , 41(6), 758–775.

34.

Kulkarni

, Hof

, Ambrósio

, Edelenbosch

, Köberle

, van Rijn

, & van Vuuren

D. V.

(2022). Investment needs to achieve SDGs: An overview. PLoS Sustainability and Transformation , 1(1), e0000020.

35.

Lashof

, & Neuberger

(2023). Climate-smart infrastructure in the United States—What does it look like and how do we get it built? Environmental Research: Infrastructure and Sustainability , 3. https://iopscience.iop.org/article/10.1088/2634-4505/acbc95/pdf

36.

Ledda

, Serra

, Ruiu

M. G. G.

, Bardi

, Trogu

, Di Cesare

E. A.

, & De Montis

(2024). Mainstreaming climate change adaptation into sectoral plans: An assessment based on the logical framework approach. Sustainability . https://doi.org/10.3390/su16093705

37.

Lee

, Juskenaite

, & Mwebaza

(2021). Public–private partnerships for climate technology transfer and innovation: Lessons from the Climate Technology Centre and Network. Sustainability , 13(6), Article 3185. https://doi.org/10.3390/su13063185

38.

Lull

, Llinares

, & Soriano

(2022). Expanding student engagement in SDG 13 ‘Climate Action’. EDULEARN proceedings (pp. 5611–5617). IATED. https://doi.org/10.21125/edulearn.2022.1318

39.

Masten

A. S.

, & Motti-Stefanidi

(2020). Multisystem resilience for children and youth in disaster: Reflections in the context of COVID-19. Adversity and Resilience Science , 1, 1–12.

40.

Maweu

, & Paterson

(2019). Minding the gap? The media and the realisation of SDG 13 in Kenya. In Sustainable Development Goals series . Springer. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-14857-7_7

41.

Messerli

, Kim

E. M.

, Lutz

, Moatti

J. P.

, Richardson

, Saidam

, Smith

, Eloundou-Enyegue

, Foli

, Glassman

, Licnona

G. H.

, Murniningtyas

, Staniskis

J. K.

, van Ypersele

P. J.

, & Furman

(2019). Expansion of sustainability science needed for the SDGs. Nature Sustainability , 2, 892–894.

42.

Mthembu

D. E.

, & Nhamo

(2022). Aligning SDG 13 with South Africa’s development agenda: Adaptation policies and institutional frameworks. Jàmbá: Journal of Disaster Risk Studies , 14(1). https://jamba.org.za/index.php/jamba/article/view/1155

43.

Negara

S. D.

, Ariza

L. J.

, & Wibawa

S. C.

(2025). Mitigating the implementation of SDG program no. 13 in local communities: An inclusive governance approach. E3S Web of Conferences , 493, 07001. https://doi.org/10.1051/e3sconf/202549307001

44.

Negara

A. P.

, Ariza

I. S.

, Widhi Nurjaya

L. A. N.

, Ubaidillah

M. F.

, Wijaya

, Lestari

V. P. P.

, Saputro

, Sukirmiyadi

*****

& Nurherdiana

S. D.

(2025). Mitigating the implementation of SDGs program no. 13 in Indonesia: An overview of social dynamics and local wisdom. E3S Web of Conferences , 605, 03040. https://doi.org/10.1051/e3sconf/202560503040

45.

Newell

, & Carter

(2024). Understanding supply-side climate policies: Towards an interdisciplinary framework. International Environmental Agreements , 24, 7–26.

46.

Newell

, & Daley

(2024). Supply-side climate policy: A new frontier in climate governance. Wiley’s Interdisciplinary Reviews: Climate Change , 15(6), e909.

47.

OECD. (2014). Guidelines for resilience systems analysis .

48.

Ohunakin

, Akpabio

, Dike

C. F. K.

, Adebiyi

M. O.

, Dickson

A. E.

, Amrevuawho

, Aleoghena

, & Abiodun

(2024). Climate change education (CCE) in informal workplaces: Unearthing possibilities and limitations for SDG 13 actualization. In 2024 International Conference on Science, Engineering and Business for Driving Sustainable Development Goals (SEB4SDG) (pp. 1–5). IEEE. https://doi.org/10.1109/SEB4SDG60871.2024.10630448

49.

Pandey

, & Asif

(2022). Assessment of energy and environmental sustainability in South Asia in the perspective of the Sustainable Development Goals. Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews , 165, 112492.

50.

Pauw

W. P.

, Moslener

, Zamarioli

, Amerasinghe

, Atela

, Affana

J. P. B.

, Buchner

, Klein

R. J. T.

, Mbeva

, Puri

, Roberts

, Shawoo

, Watson

, & Weikmans

(2022). Post-2025 climate finance target: How much more and how much better? Climate Policy , 22(9), 1241–1251.

51.

Plag

H.-P.

, & Jules-Plag

S.-A.

(2020). A goal-based approach to the identification of essential transformation variables in support of the implementation of the 2030 agenda for sustainable development. International Journal of Digital Earth , 13(2), 166–187.

52.

Popovski

(2024). Climate change as an existential threat: Translating global goals into action. Environmental Policy and Law , 54(2–3), 127–139.

53.

Priatna

, & Khan

(2024). The importance of education and role of educational institutions in climate change mitigation and achieving UN SDG 13 climate action. Indonesian Journal of Applied Environmental Studies , 5(1). https://doi.org/10.33751/injast.v5i1.10559

54.

Rahman

F. N.

, Sen

K. K.

, Karmaker

S. C.

, & Saha

B. B.

(2025). Good governance and energy justice: Pathways to human development. Energy Policy , 94(C). https//doi.org/10.1016/j.jup.2025.101897

55.

Randers

, Rockström

, Golüke

, Collste

, & Cornell

(2018). Transformation is feasible: How to achieve the Sustainable Development Goals within planetary boundaries . Stockholm Resilience Centre & Club of Rome. https://www.stockholmresilience.org/publications/publications/2020-12-12-achieving-the-sustainable-development-goals-within-the-planetary-boundaries.htm

56.

Saeed

, Makhdum

M. S. A.

, Anwar

, & Yaseen

(2023). Climate change vulnerability, adaptation, and feedback hypothesis: A comparison of lower-middle, upper-middle, and high-income countries. Sustainability . https://doi.org/10.3390/su15054145

57.

Sovacool

B. K.

, Turnheim

, Hook

, Brock

, & Martiskainen

(2021). Dispossessed by decarbonisation: Reducing vulnerability, injustice, and inequality in the lived experience of low-carbon pathways. World Development , 137(2021), 105116.

58.

The Paris Agreement (2015). United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change , New York.

59.

Tiwari

, Sharif

, Sofuoğlu

, & Nuţă

(2024). A step toward the attainment of carbon neutrality and SDG-13: Role of financial depth and green technology innovation. Research in International Business and Finance , 67, 102631.

60.

UN. (2020). Just transition of the workforce, and the creation of decent work and quality jobs .

61.

United Nations Framework for Climate Change.

62.

UN. (2023). The Sustainable Development Goals Report 2023: Special edition . https://unstats.un.org/sdgs/report/2023/Goal-13/

63.

UNEP. (2024). Emissions gap report 2024: No more hot air … please! With a massive gap between rhetoric and reality, countries draft new climate commitments . https://doi.org/10.59117/20.500.11822/46404

64.

UNFCCC. (2024). Sixth biennial assessment and overview of climate finance flows: Executive summary . Standing Committee on Finance Climate Change. https://unfccc.int/sites/default/files/resource/6thBA_ES_SCF35_unedited%20version.pdf

65.

World Bank. (2023). Social dimensions of climate change . https://www.worldbank.org/en/topic/social-dimensions-of-climate-change

66.

Wright

, Irwin

, Nyberg

, & Bowden

(2022). ‘We’re in the coal business’: Maintaining fossil fuel hegemony in the face of climate change. Journal of Industrial Relations , 64(4), 544–563.

67.

Zhang

, Wang

, & Yuan

(2024). Shock or opportunity? Unveiling the effect of low-carbon transition on employment. Journal of Environmental Management , 359(8), 120885. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jenvman.2024.120015

From Crisis to Policy Action: Tackling Climate Change Through SDG 13

Abstract

Keywords

Introduction

Background

SDG 13: Climate Action

Major Challenges/Gaps Relating to Climate Change Mitigation and Adaptation Measures

Limited Mitigation Targets and Actions

Fragmented Governance, Lack of Political Will and Institutional Capacity

Disproportionate Impacts

Insufficient Climate Finance and Private Sector Engagement

Public Awareness and Societal Engagement Gaps

Short-term Policy Horizons

Barriers to Innovation and Technology Uptake

Policy Strategies for Transformation

Conclusion

Footnotes

Declaration of Conflicting Interests

Funding

References