Vista view within the historic urban context is an important and vulnerable form of the visual landscape. Focussing on the changing image of vista views in the Old City of Beijing, this study was conducted in two parts: the historical reconstruction of initial views and the status assessment of current views. In the first part, we reconstruct the viewing points and objects of Ming and Qing Beijing through on-site surveys and historical material materials, derive viewing corridors and corresponding vista spaces through spatial modelling and GIS-based analysis, and formulate a quantitative classification framework according to viewing distances and angles. In the second part, we establish an evaluation framework for current views in terms of view components based on the principles of authenticity and integrity, filter existing views through integrity assessment, and analyse their authenticity in terms of position, character, and atmosphere. For the reconstruction results, 25 initial viewing points, 58 viewing objects, and 374 viewing corridors are identified; the quantities and spatial distribution characteristics of 7 types of initial images are obtained. For the assessment findings, 132 views have vanished due to the disappearance of 4 viewing points and 18 viewing objects; the existing 242 views generally have good authenticity, and the most intact and authentic types are ‘Tiao’, ‘Xi’, and ‘Kan’. This study provides a reference for the renewal and conservation of historical and traditional settlements.
AixinjueluoH (2013) Qian Long Yu Zhi Shi Wen Quan Ji. China Renmin University Press.
2.
AshrafiBKloosMNeugebauerC (2021) Heritage impact assessment, beyond an assessment tool: a comparative analysis of urban development impact on visual integrity in four UNESCO world heritage properties. Journal of Cultural Heritage47: 199–207.
3.
BandarinFvan OersR (2015) Reconnecting the City: The Historic Urban Landscape Approach and the Future of Urban Heritage. John Wiley & Sons Inc.
4.
Beijing Municipal Cultural Heritage Bureau (2021) The Central Axis of Beijing–A Masterpiece of Eastern Ideal Urban Order. Beijing Municipal Cultural Heritage Bureau.
5.
ChenSPHammondKJGerritsenA, et al. (2020) Local gazetteers research tools: overview and research application. Journal of Chinese History中國歷史學刊4(2): 544–558.
6.
CiaffiMAlicandriEVettrainoAM, et al. (2018) Conservation of veteran trees within historical gardens (COVE): a case study applied to Platanus orientalis L. in central Italy. Urban Forestry and Urban Greening34: 336–347.
7.
City of Vancouver (2011) Implementation of “Vancouver Views” and Opportunities for Higher Buildings in the Downtown. City of Vancouver.
8.
CullenG (1961) The Concise Townscape. The Architectural Press.
9.
CzyńskaK (2023) Assessment of the visual impact of a tall building on a UNESCO listed historic urban landscape. In: Proceedings of the 28th international conference of the association for computer-aided architectural design research in Asia (CAADRIA), Ahmedabad, India, 18–24 March 2023, pp. 615–624. https://doi.org/10.52842/conf.caadria.2023.1.615
10.
CzyńskaKRubinowiczP (2019) Classification of cityscape areas according to landmarks visibility analysis. Environmental Impact Assessment Review76(May): 47–60. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.eiar.2019.01.004
11.
DaneshmandianMCBehzadfarMJalilisadrabadS (2020) The efficiency of visual buffer zone to preserve historical open spaces in Iran. Sustainable Cities and Society52(January): 101856. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scs.2019.101856
12.
European Unions (2011) Local Action Plan: Vilnius Old Town. European Unions.
13.
FangYNZengJNamaitiA (2021) Landscape visual sensitivity assessment of historic districts—a case study of Wudadao historic district in Tianjin, China. ISPRS International Journal of Geo-Information10(3): 175.
14.
GarcíaSP (2015) Urban Panoramic Views: Method for their Analysis and its Application in Towns and Cities in Andalusia. PhD Dissertation, Universidad de Málaga. https://riuma.uma.es/xmlui/handle/10630/10762
GarneroGFabrizioE (2015) Visibility analysis in urban spaces: a raster-based approach and case studies. Environment and Planning B: Planning and Design42(4): 688–707.
17.
GinzarlyMHoubartCTellerJ (2019) The historic urban landscape approach to urban management: a systematic review. International Journal of Heritage Studies25(10): 999–1019.
18.
GobsterPH (2018) Visual Resource Stewardship Conference Proceedings: Landscape and Seascape Management in a Time of Change. U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service.
19.
GobsterPHRibeRGPalmerJF (2019) Themes and trends in visual assessment research: introduction to the landscape and urban planning special collection on the visual assessment of landscapes. Landscape and Urban Planning191(November): 103635. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.landurbplan.2019.103635
20.
Greater London Authority (2012) London View Management Framework. Greater London Authority.
21.
HaoYYaoZWuR, et al. (2024) Damage and restoration technology of historic buildings of brick and wood structures: a review. Heritage Science12(1): 301.
22.
HouR (2013) Beijing Historical Atlas. Administrative Divisions and City Volume. Beijing Publishing Group.
23.
HuXGeXWuJZhanYLiuY (2026) Spatial-Genetic Process of Guild Hall Growth in the Old City of Beijing during the Ming, Qing, and Republican Periods. Acta Scientiarum Naturalium Universitatis Pekinensis62(1): 147–161.
24.
HuXLinGZhaoQ, et al. (2025) Urban image study based on volunteered geographic information platform: a case of the old city of Beijing. Urbanism and Architecture22(1): 1–5.
25.
HuXLiuYYuGXuMGeX (2026) Visual Quality Assessment on the Vista Landscape of Beijing Central Axis Using VR Panoramic Technology. Buildings16(2): 315.
26.
ICOMOS (2014) The Florence Declaration on Heritage and Landscape as Human Values. ICOMOS.
27.
InglisNCVukomanovicJCostanzaJ, et al. (2022) From viewsheds to viewscapes: trends in landscape visibility and visual quality research. Landscape and Urban Planning224(August): 104424. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.landurbplan.2022.104424
28.
JerpåsenGLarsenK (2011) Visual impact of wind farms on cultural heritage: a Norwegian case study. Environmental Impact Assessment Review31(3): 206–215.
29.
KairanLIWoudstraJFengW (2010) ‘Eight views’ versus ‘eight scenes’: the history of the bajing tradition in China. Landscape Research35(1): 83–110.
30.
KangQHuangM (2023) The mountain-viewing trend in private gardens of the song dynasty. Studies in the History of Gardens & Designed Landscapes43(4): 343–351.
31.
KarimimoshaverMParsamaneshMAramF, et al. (2021) The impact of the city skyline on pleasantness; state of the art and a case study. Heliyon7(5): e07009. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.heliyon.2021.e07009.7
32.
KazumasaO (2000) Pictures of the Imperial City of Qing Beijing. Xue Yuan Press.
33.
KongF (2017) The historical and cultural significance of Beijing’s Central Axis. Beijing Observation (10): 12–15.
34.
LanWDuanJQiZ, et al. (2021) Approaches and methods of city view planning. Planners37(11): 7.
35.
LiC (2010) Study of Beijing Six Seas development. Journal of Changsha University24(4): 2.
36.
LiZ (2023) Gates of the Central Axis. Beijing Daily Group.
37.
LiangS (2005) A Pictorial History of Chinese Architecture. Baihua Literature and Art Publishing House.
38.
LinTLinHHuM (2017) Three-dimensional visibility analysis and visual quality computation for urban open spaces aided by Google SketchUp and WebGis. Environment and Planning B: Planning and Design44(4): 618–646.
39.
LinYKeYvan den BoschCCK, et al. (2020) Bird eye analysis of skyline views from an elevated recreation trail—the case of the Fu forest trail, Fuzhou, China. Urban Forestry and Urban Greening47(January): 126543. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ufug.2019.126543
40.
LiuY (2016) A review of the ten-year research on historic urban landscape in China—in memoriam of Dr. Ronald van Oers. Chinese Landscape Architecture32(02): 74–77.
41.
LiuY (2021) A Centennial Images of Beijing Central Axis. Beijing Daily Group.
42.
LiuYHuangSDingXHuangZ (2021) Study on the Historic image and Current Evaluation of the Vista View Landscape in the Central Axis and Six Seas Area of Beijing. Architectural Journal (S2): 6–11.
43.
LiuYHuangZLiangJNanJ (2024) Recovery of Landscape Imagery and Exploration of Planning Thoughts of Traditional Chinese Settlements——A Case Study of Zhuge Village in Zhejiang Province. Architectural Journal (S2): 8–15.
44.
LiuYMuTHuangZ, et al. (2019) Research on visually perceived image and strategies for vista view system improvement of the Jinsitao waterfront of Shichahai in Beijing. Landscape Architecture Frontiers7(02): 121–131.
45.
LvZ (2015) The heritage value and Beijing central axis. Journal of Beijing Union University (Humanities and Social Sciences)13(02): 11–16.
46.
LvSChenJ (2019) Comparison of foreign visual landscape planning and design methods. Urban Planning International171(03): 155–158.
47.
LynchK (1960) The Image of the City. MIT Press.
48.
Mairie de Paris (2013) Plan Local d’Urbanisme [Paris urban plan]. Mairie de Paris.
49.
MoggridgeH (2010) Visual analysis: tools for conservation of urban views during development. In: van OersRHaraguchiS (eds) Managing Historic Cities. UNESCO World Heritage Centre, pp. 65–71.
50.
MohseniFLotfiSSholehM (2020) Proposing an adapted visibility analysis methodology for the building height codes of the Shiraz development plan. Sustainable Cities and Society61(October): 102347. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scs.2020.102347
51.
National Trust for Historic Preservation (2009) Approaches to Viewshed Protection Around the Country. National Trust for Historic Preservation.
52.
PengYNijhuisSGengM, et al. (2025) Enhancing visual attribute comprehension of urban heritage landscapes using combined GIS-based visual analysis methods: west lake as a case study. Environmental Impact Assessment Review115(10803): 2.
53.
QinXFangMYangD, et al. (2023) Quantitative evaluation of attraction intensity of highway landscape visual elements based on dynamic perception. Environmental Impact Assessment Review100: 107081.
54.
RubinowiczPCzyńskaK (2015) Study of city landscape heritage using lidar data and 3d-City models. The International Archives of the Photogrammetry, Remote Sensing and Spatial Information SciencesXL-7-W3(April): 1395–1402. https://doi.org/10.5194/isprsarchives-XL-7-W3-1395-2015
55.
San Francisco Planning Department (2023) San Francisco General Plan. San Francisco Planning Department.
56.
SantosaHYudonoASutiknoFR, et al. (2023) Visibility evaluation of historical landmark building using photographic survey coupled with isovist and viewshed analysis. International Review for Spatial Planning and Sustainable Development11(4): 71–92.
57.
SchleeMB (2017) The role of buffer zones in Rio de Janeiro urban landscape protection. Journal of Cultural Heritage Management and Sustainable Development7(4): 381–406. https://doi.org/10.1108/JCHMSD-10-2015-0040
58.
SirénO (2018) The Walls and Gates of Peking. Ren Min Ri Bao Chu Ban She.
59.
SourachaiT (2006) A study on the changes of urban vista in Rattanakosin area. Journal of Architectural/Planning Research and Studies (JARS)4(2): 117–140.
60.
SukwaiJMishimaNSrinurakN (2022a) Balancing cultural heritage conservation: visual integrity assessment to support change management in the buffer zone of Chiang Mai historic city using GIS and computer-generated 3D modeling. Land11(5): 666. https://doi.org/10.3390/land11050666
61.
SukwaiJMishimaNSrinurakN (2022b) Identifying visual sensitive areas: an evaluation of view corridors to support nature-culture heritage conservation in Chiang Mai historic city. Built Heritage6(1): 23. https://doi.org/10.1186/s43238-022-00071-z
62.
SunYZhengCLiM, et al. (2019) A brief analysis of Beijing central axis and its current conservation state as a cultural heritage. World Architecture (11): 80–87.
63.
TangY (2000) Jiu Du Wen Wu Lue. Beijing Ancient Books Press.
64.
TangXZhangL (2016) Xinhua street: a case of urban reform of Beijing in the early 20th century. Journal of Chinese Historical Geography31(03): 54–62.
65.
TaraA (2017) Measuring Visual Attributes for Assessing Visual Conflicts in Urban Environments. PhD Dissertation. Queensland University of Technology. https://doi.org/10.13140/RG.2.2.17983.12960
66.
TaraAThomasNChenowethA, et al. (2020) Growing by place: identifying building height limits using skyline thresholds. Journal on Landscape Architecture2020(5): 614–625. https://doi.org/10.14627/537690063
67.
TaraALawsonGRenataA (2021) Measuring magnitude of change by high-rise buildings in visual amenity conflicts in Brisbane. Landscape and Urban Planning205(January): 103930. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.landurbplan.2020.103930
68.
TavernorRGassnerG (2010) Visual consequences of the plan: managing London’s changing skyline. City, Culture and Society1(2): 99–108. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ccs.2010.06.001
69.
The Palace Museum (2017) Measured Plans of Ancient Buildings Along Beijing’s Central Axis. The Palace Museum.
70.
The People’s Government of Beijing Municipality (2017) Beijing Master Plan (2016-2035). The People’s Government of Beijing Municipality.
71.
The People’s Government of Beijing Municipality (2020a) Detailed Control Plan for the Functional Core Area of the Capital (Block Level). The People’s Government of Beijing Municipality.
72.
The People’s Government of Beijing Municipality (2020b) Regulatory Detailed Planning of the Capital Functional Core Area (Block Level) (2018-2035). The People’s Government of Beijing Municipality.
UNESCO World Heritage Centre (2023) Operational guidelines for the implementation of the world heritage convention. https://whc.unesco.org/en/guidelines/ (accessed 20 December 2023).
78.
VafaieFRemøyHGruisV (2023) Adaptive reuse of heritage buildings; a systematic literature review of success factors. Habitat International142: 102926.
79.
WangZ (2022) Research on order aesthetics of traditional Chinese architecture from the perspective of design geometry. Front. Art Res4: 49–54.
80.
WangYChenZ (2017) Vista view design and planning of beijing. Beijing Planning Review (4): 29–35.
81.
WHITRAP (2016) The HUL guidebook: managing heritage in dynamic and constantly changing urban environments. A practical guide to UNESCO’s recommendation on the historic urban landscape. https://unesdoc.unesco.org/ark:/48223/pf0000259684 (accessed 4 April 2025).
82.
WuZWangYGanW, et al. (2023) A survey of the landscape visibility analysis tools and technical improvements. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health20(3): 1788.
83.
XiangYLiangHFangX, et al. (2021) The comparisons of on-site and off-site applications in surveys on perception of and preference for urban green spaces: which approach is more reliable?Urban Forestry and Urban Greening58: 126961.
84.
XieYZhaoYLiuW, et al. (2024) Exploring the impact of urban development on mountain view visualization using a GIS-based landscape assessment model: a case study in Lishui, China. Geocarto International39(1): 2322697.
85.
YamadaK (2019) Research on the spatial structure of outer city of Burmese capital cities from an analysis of Mandalay, the last royal city of Burma. Urban and Regional Planning Review6: 22–44.
86.
YangYLiuY (2025) Temporal and spatial evolution of unsteady water bodies in historic cities: a case study of inner Guang’anmen area in the Old City of Beijing. City Planning Review49(02): 23–33.
87.
YangJSunXPanY, et al. (2020) Landscape and view: spatial analysis and construction ways of view system in city. City Planning Review44(12): 103–112.
88.
YangJRenWRenY, et al. (2025) From close to open: the renovation of the city gates of Beijing and the transportation restructuring of the city in the early Republic of China. Journal of Historical Science11(11): 56–66.
89.
YoshiharaTNishinaDTanakaT, et al. (2017) A study on the psychological evaluation of tourism landscape images in Hiroshima A psychological evaluation by Korean subjects. Journal of Asian Architecture and Building Engineering16(1): 223–229.
90.
YuM (1985) Ri Xia Jiu Wen Kao. Beijing Ancient Books Press.
91.
YukioNHistorical District Research Association (2001) Conservation Planning for Urban Landscape in the Western Countries. Translated by ZhangSCaiD (ed) Scientific & Technical Publishers.
92.
ZhangJ (2016) The Cultural Gene of Ancient Chinese. Tsinghua University Press.
93.
ZhangJ (2022) Tsinghua university’s exploration and reflection on the holistic conservation of historic cities. World Architecture (12): 30–33.
94.
ZhangJ (2023) Pilgrimaging mountains and rivers: the spatial layout of ancient Chinese settlements and their environments. Studies in the History of Gardens & Designed Landscapes43(4): 254–278.
95.
ZhangJHuoX (2002) Human scale in the planning and design of ancient beijing. World Architecture (02): 66–71.
96.
ZhangGChengSGaoY (2023a) A visibility-based approach to manage the vertical urban development and maintain visual sustainability of urban mountain landscapes: a case of Mufu mountain in Nanjing, China. Environment and Planning B: Urban Analytics and City Science51: 23998083231177058. https://doi.org/10.1177/23998083231177058
97.
ZhangTYanMYuX, et al. (2023b) Visual assessment of historic landmarks based on GIS and survey: a study of view and viewing of tiger hill in Suzhou, China. Journal of Asian Architecture and Building Engineering23: 1–15.
98.
ZhuY (1982) Jing Shi Fang Xiang Zhi Gao. Beijing Ancient Books Press.
