Personality Traits,Fear of Missing Out,and Social Media Addiction Among Nursing Students: A Structural Equation Modeling Approach

Abstract

Introduction

The relationship between personality traits and the growing use of social media among students has been associated with several negative outcomes such as the fear of missing out (FOM). However, studies focusing on nursing students are limited.

Objective

This study explored the relationships between personality traits, FOM, and social media addiction (SMA). Furthermore, it sought to assess the mediating role of FOM in the correlation between personality and SMA. Additionally, the study examined potential gender differences in these relationships through the application of multiple-group analyses.

Methods

A cross-sectional study was conducted over four months in 2024. Nursing students were recruited using convenience sampling. This study assessed three primary variables: FOM, personality traits, and SMA.

Results

The structural model exhibited high reliability and validity, with both the SMA and FOM demonstrating robust reliability. Extraversion displayed the highest reliability among personality traits. The SMA showed a strong correlation with conscientiousness and moderate correlations with extraversion and FOM. The model fit was adequate standardized root mean square residual = .078), although the normed fit index fell below the optimal level. The SMA's R² was .345, indicating moderate explanatory power, while the FOM's R² was lower. Conscientiousness, agreeableness, and FOM positively influenced SMA, while neuroticism negatively impacted it. FOM was a significant predictor of SMA, with a more pronounced effect in females.

Conclusion

This study identified a positive correlation between conscientiousness and agreeableness and SMA, while neuroticism negatively affected SMA. Additionally, FOM was a significant predictor of SMA, particularly in females. This study's findings underscore the need to incorporate personality traits and FOM into interventions targeting SMA reduction.

Keywords

personality traits social media addiction fear of missing out structural equation modeling nursing students

Introduction

Internet addiction is increasingly being recognized as a concern in educational environments, especially in schools and universities. In nursing education, internet access is needed for educational purposes and knowledge updates (Islam et al., 2018), but excessive engagement in social media, online sexual relationships, video games, and internet gambling, outside of academic purposes, substantially heightens the risk of addiction (Islam et al., 2018). Some studies have examined problematic social media use and addiction. For example, a study at King Khalid University found that 55.2% of medical students exhibited social media addiction (SMA), which was significant associations to sociodemographic factors such as being male, experiencing low academic performance, and having high levels of depression and anxiety (Alfaya et al., 2023). It has been claimed that nursing students are highly vulnerable to internet addiction due to the stress linked to their studies (Cai et al., 2021). Without effective intervention, this issue could negatively impact the quality of nursing care and patient safety among students during training. Thus, further investigation of this occurrence and its contributing components is required. Research suggests that the Big Five personality traits play a substantial role in shaping behaviors and are key factors influencing the threat of internet addiction across various people and cultures (Zhou et al., 2021).

Literature Review

Previous studies have shown that social media platforms offer benefits, such as self-development, enhanced socialization, communication, and entertainment. For instance, in Saudi Arabia, a study examined social media usage correlation with university students’ academic performance and reported with a high level of social media users, positive attitudes towards utilizing it for studies were expressed, showing that social media can be utilized to make learning more interactive but can also affect studies if utilized excessively (Alshwiah & Alaulamie, 2023). Moreover, in the United Arab Emirates, one study examined the influence of social media use on educational experiences and students’ academic achievement. The results indicate an indirect relationship between social media use and academic achievement. It is mediated by collaborative learning, instructor interaction, and academic distractions, although social media has the potential to enhance learning (Cao & Tian, 2022). Another study in Kashmir, India, assessed the impact of social media on the academic performance of college students and found that students primarily used social media platforms such as YouTube for educational purposes, leading to improved academic performance, including improved reading and writing skills (Palla & Sheikh, 2021). Moreover, among college students in Malaysia, a study examined the use of social networking sites and academic performance of college students. It was found that there was an inverted U-shape, where moderate use of social media correlated positively with academic performance, but overuse decreased academic performance, suggesting that too much can be detrimental to the academic performance of students (Tafesse, 2022).

Nevertheless, the extreme use of social media can lead to negative consequences, including sleep disorders, anxiety, depression, and reduced social functionality and productivity. For some, social media use has developed into addiction, with over 210 million people worldwide meeting social media addiction criteria (Arora & Mehta, 2023; Liao et al., 2023; Miranda et al., 2023). SMA is defined as using these platforms to disrupt real-life activities, relationships, and performance (Hou et al., 2019). Users may increasingly spend time on social media to recapture earlier emotional experiences and research has indicated that longer use increases the likelihood of addiction (Brailovskaia et al., 2018).

Developing dependency on social media can cause anxiety about social exclusion, particularly when individuals feel anxious about relationships (Mak et al., 2021; Marciano et al., 2020). These negative outcomes of SMA may result in the phenomenon called fear of missing out (FOM). Primarily, the FOM is the concern that others are rewarding events that one is not part of (Przybylski et al., 2013). Social media is seen as a tool to alleviate this anxiety, as FOM is driven by the desire to stay updated on others’ activities (Casale et al., 2018). Studies have investigated the links between FOM, social media use, and addiction (Balta et al., 2020; Reer et al., 2019; Servidio et al., 2021), based on theories like social comparison, self-determination, and self-construal (Tandon et al., 2021; Wu-Ouyang, 2022). Furthermore, Brailovskaia and Margraf (2024) found a positive relationship between FOM and addictive social media use. Disconnection from the virtual world can lead to anxiety, and significant levels of FOM may result in maladaptive coping strategies, such as excessive social media use. While this temporarily alleviates negative emotions, it can create a strong emotional attachment to social media, fostering a desire for constant online connections (Brailovskaia & Margraf, 2024; Tandon et al., 2021).

Personality has often been recognized as both a risk and a protective factor for SMA (Mak et al., 2021). Big Five personality traits are among the most widely used frameworks. Previous studies have examined all five traits and have consistently found that individuals with high levels of neuroticism are more likely to experience SMA (Carvalho et al., 2018). Some research suggests that openness, agreeableness, and conscientiousness personality traits are negatively associated with excessive internet use and act as protective factors. For instance, in Poland, a study examined whether personality, particularly neuroticism, can predict phubbing, which refers to the act of ignoring someone to focus on one's phone, among teenagers. The study found that internet addiction mediated the relationship between neuroticism and phubbing, with adolescents with high neuroticism being more likely to engage in phubbing due to excessive phone usage (Nikel et al., 2025). Another study conducted in China explored the connection between the Big Five personality traits—neuroticism and agreeableness—and pathological internet use. It found that loneliness and depression acted as mediators in this relationship, with individuals higher in neuroticism or lower in agreeableness being more prone to internet addiction due to feelings of loneliness and emotional distress (Zhou et al., 2021). Research has also found connections between Big Five personality traits and SMA. For instance, one study showed that being female, neurotic, agreeable, introverted, and conscientious are associated with SMA (Kircaburun et al., 2020).

An investigation into the relationship between FOM, personality, and SMA among Saudi nursing students is important because of the specific academic and social stress experienced by this student population. Nursing students, like other student populations, increasingly utilize social media websites, and their experiences can vary as a function of personality dimensions such as neuroticism, extraversion, and conscientiousness. Recent studies have highlighted the importance of this issue. For instance, Alshanqiti et al. (2023) and Al-Abyadh (2025) highlighted how social media use might influence the academic performance of medical students in Medina, Saudi Arabia, and that both positive and negative consequences might result based on how these sites are being used. Alfaya et al. (2023) found that SMA is quite prevalent among medical students in Saudi Arabia, depending on academic pressure and social isolation as the deciding factors. A study by Alshwiah and Alaulamie (2023) also emphasized the identification of the influence which social media impacts student performance as well as students’ attitudes in such a manner that it was revealed that excessive participation would detract from academic success. These findings indicate that Saudi nursing students with their intensive academic course load and unique social environments may face similar challenges in juggling social media use and academic success. Understanding how FOM and personality play a role in SMA among nursing students is important for developing effective interventions and support systems to promote academic success and well-being.

These studies revealed the need to explore how SMA, FOM, and personality overlap among nursing students, as they may face specific challenges in fulfilling educational needs with the pervasive presence of social media. Such an understanding can help develop specific strategies to maintain students’ mental well-being and academic success within Saudi Arabian culture.

The theoretical model of the interplay between personality traits, SMA, and FOM explains how personality traits influence FOM and SMA, with the premise that FOM may mediate the relationship between personality traits and SMA. This model draws on prominent psychological theories, including the Big Five Personality Theory (Costa & McCrae, 1992), the Cognitive-Affective Personality System (CAPS) (Mischel & Shoda, 1995), and the Uses and Gratifications Theory (UGT) (Katz et al., 1973). The Big Five personality traits play a central role in understanding SMA and FOM, as they explain how individuals behave in their environment, including social media. The CAPS model suggests cognitive and affective responses to environmental stimuli such as social media posts and shape behavior. FOM can trigger negative emotional responses, such as anxiety and insecurity, particularly in individuals with high neuroticism or low self-esteem, leading them to use social media more frequently to cope with these emotions. Additionally, UGT posits that individuals actively seek media to satisfy specific needs, including social connections, entertainment, and information. For individuals with high levels of FOM, social media serve to achieve social validation and connection, potentially fostering addiction.

Although previous studies have assessed the link between personality traits, SMA, and FOM in different environments and cultures, no study has specifically explored this relationship among nursing students in Saudi Arabia. According to the vulnerability model of personality psychopathology, certain personality traits may increase an individual's susceptibility to psychological disorders, such as SMA and FOM. Therefore, this study employed a structural equation modeling approach to investigate the mediating role of FOM in the relationship between personality traits and SMA. Furthermore, this study investigated whether these relationships vary by gender using multiple-group analyses.

Therefore, this study answers the following hypothesis:

Relationships between personality traits and FOM:

Hypothesis 1: A considerable link exists between extraversion and FOM.

Hypothesis 2: A considerable link exists between conscientiousness and FOM.

Hypothesis 3: A considerable link exists between openness to experience and FOM.

Hypothesis 4: A considerable link exists between neuroticism and FOM.

Hypothesis 5: A considerable link exists between agreeableness and FOM.

Relationships between personality traits and SMA:

Hypothesis 6: A considerable link exists between extraversion and SMA.

Hypothesis 7: A considerable link exists between conscientiousness and SMA.

Hypothesis 8: A considerable link exists between openness to experience and SMA.

Hypothesis 9: A considerable link exists between neuroticism and SMA.

Hypothesis 10: A considerable link exists between agreeableness and SMA.

Relationship between FOM and SMA:

Hypothesis 11: A considerable link exists between FOM and SMA.

The significance of this study lies in its contribution to understanding the associations between personality traits (extraversion, conscientiousness, openness to experience, neuroticism, and agreeableness) and FOM and SMA. By investigating FOM as a mediating factor, this study elucidates how personality traits influence online behaviors, underscoring the critical role of FOM in the relationship between personality and SMA. Furthermore, examination of gender differences through multiple-group analyses offers valuable insights that support the development of gender-specific interventions aimed at reducing SMA. Understanding these relationships is particularly important given the increasing concern regarding the impact of SMA on mental health and well-being. The application of partial least squares structural equation modeling (PLS-SEM) enhances the analysis, providing robust and generalizable findings that contribute to the academic literature on digital well-being and inform practical strategies for managing problematic social media use.

Methods

Setting and Design

This cross-sectional study was conducted at the College of Nursing, Imam Abdulrahman Bin Faisal University (IAU), situated in the Eastern Province of Saudi Arabia, from May until September 2024.

Sampling

This study focused on students of the College of Nursing. Nursing students from their first to fifth years, including those in their internship year, were included. Data were gathered using a convenience sampling method. The sample size was determined using the Raosoft calculator (www.raosoft.com), with a total population of 1,129 nursing students, 95% confidence level, and 5% margin of error. The sample of 287 nursing students was considered representative.

Variables

Three variables were measured. First, The FOM scale (Przybylski et al., 2013) is a self-report instrument designed to measure individuals’ tendencies to experience FOM on rewarding experiences. The questionnaire consists of 10 items, each assessing different aspects of FOM. Respondents rated their agreement with each item on a scale ranging from 1 (strongly disagree) to 7 (strongly agree). Example items include: “I fear others have more rewarding experiences than me” and “I fear my friends have more rewarding experiences than me.” Cronbach's alpha coefficient for the FOM scale has been reported to be approximately .85, indicating high internal consistency among the items. The scale validity and reliability were measured and confirm to be appropriate to use in Arabic culture (Al-Menayes, 2015).

Second, the Big Five personality traits (John et al., 1991) were evaluated using a condensed version of the Big Five Inventory, comprising 44 Likert-scale items. The participants indicated their level of agreement on a scale ranging from 1 (strongly disagree) to 5 (strongly agree). This inventory includes five subscales: conscientiousness, extraversion, agreeableness, openness, and neuroticism. Sample items include, “I see myself as someone who is talkative,” “I see myself as someone who tends to find fault with others,” and “I see myself as someone who does a thorough job.” Validity and reliability assessments for the Arabic version were conducted, with Cronbach's alpha coefficients ranging from .84 to .68 across the subscales (Al-Dababi et al., 2019).

Finally, the social media addiction scale (SMAS) (Al-Menayes, 2015) was used to evaluate social media usage. This scale, derived from the Internet Addiction Test (Young, 2009), consists of 14 items specifically designed to assess SMA. Respondents provided ratings for these items on a five-point Likert scale ranging from strongly agree to strongly disagree, corresponding to scores from 5 to 1. Sample items include: “I often find myself using social media longer than intended” and “I often find life to be boring without social media.” The validity and reliability of the SMAS have been examined and established as appropriate for use in Arabic culture (Al-Menayes, 2015).

Ethical Consideration

The study obtained ethical approval from the Institutional Review Board (IRB) under approval number IRB-2024-04-475. The IRB conducted a thorough review of all the study procedures and survey instruments prior to the recruitment of undergraduate nursing students. Participants were provided with an information sheet and verbal instructions that detailed the voluntary nature of their participation, including their right to withdraw from the study at any time, without any effect on their academic standing or rights. Efforts were undertaken to ensure that the participants understood the study comprehensively, including its potential risks and benefits. Participants were afforded the opportunity to pose questions before providing informed consent. Measures to safeguard confidentiality and privacy were implemented in accordance with ethical guidelines governing the study. The information sheet also contained details regarding the purpose of the research, its significance, and the potential benefits associated with participation.

Data Analysis

This study used SmartPLS 3 for data analysis, focusing on factor loading, reliability, and validity. PLS-SEM was employed to examine the relationships between personality traits, emotional regulation, and happiness while considering direct and indirect effects. Bootstrapping with 5,000 resamples and a significance level of p < .05 was applied to assess confidence intervals. The study also used Henseler's Multigroup Analysis (MGA) to explore gender differences in the link between personality traits and SMA among nurses.

Results

Demographic Characteristics

The characteristics of the study participants were as follows: A total of 411 participants were surveyed, with a significant majority being female (302 students), while males comprised only 109 of the sample. The majority of participants reported their marital status as single (n = 395), while only 16 were married. In terms of age, the participants were fairly evenly divided, with 201 under 20 years old and 210 aged 20 years or older. Regarding educational level, a slight majority were in their first year of study (194).

Measurement Model

Analysis of reliability and validity yielded satisfactory results for the constructs evaluated. The SMA demonstrated a Cronbach's alpha of .800 and composite reliability (CR) of .857, indicating a good level of internal consistency. Similarly, the FOM construct also exhibited adequate reliability, with a Cronbach's alpha of .712 and CR of .819. Among the Big Five personality traits, extraversion displayed the highest reliability (α = .730, CR = .876), while both openness and neuroticism also showed strong reliability and validity metrics. Conscientiousness and agreeableness revealed moderate reliability; however, all constructs satisfied the criteria for convergent validity (average variance extracted, AVE > .50). Variance inflation factor values below 2.07 indicated the absence of multicollinearity issues. In summary, the measures employed were both reliable and valid for subsequent analyses (Table 1).

Table 1.

Reliability and Validity.

Construct	Items	SMA	Cronbach's alpha	rho_A	CR	AVE	VIF
SMA	Add10	.710	.800	.804	.857	.500	1.58
	Add13	.689					1.44
	Add3	.750					1.56
	Add4	.698					1.50
	Add8	.678					1.42
	Add9	.718					1.54
FOM	Fear3	.702	.712	.721	.819	.530	1.97
	Fear4	.778					1.37
	Fear6	.709					1.31
	Fear9	.722					1.95
Agreeableness	P12	.731	.464	.495	.784	.647	1.10
	P2R	.871					1.10
Openness	P5	.889	.708	.710	.872	.774	1.43
	P25	.870					1.43
Extraversion	P11	.934	.730	.835	.876	.780	1.50
	P16	.829					1.50
Conscientiousness	P18	.765	.724	.757	.827	.548	1.52
	P38	.609					1.25
	P43	.735					1.36
	P23	.833					1.53
Neuroticism	P9	.750	.801	.826	.860	.552	1.70
	P39	.785					1.80
	P24	.766					1.95
	P19	.662					1.82
	P14	.745					2.07

Note. FOM = fear of missing out; SMA = social media addiction; AVE = average variance extracted; VIF = variance inflation factor; CR = composite reliability.

The Fornell–Larcker criterion was employed to evaluate discriminant validity among the constructs. The square root of the AVE, represented by the diagonal values, exceeded the correlations between each construct and all other constructs, thereby confirming discriminant validity. The SMA exhibited the strongest correlation with conscientiousness (.502) and a moderate correlation with extraversion (.351). FOM demonstrated a moderate correlation with SMA (.343) and agreeableness (.235). Conversely, neuroticism exhibited negative correlations with several constructs, particularly SMA (−.299) and conscientiousness (−.348). These findings substantiate the distinctiveness of each construct, thereby supporting the discriminant validity of the model (Table 2).

Table 2.

Fornell–Larcker Criterion Discriminant Validity.

	SMA	Agreeableness	Conscientiousness	Extraversion	FOM	Neuroticism	Openness
SMA	. 707
Agreeableness	.240	. 804
Conscientiousness	.502	.260	. 740
Extraversion	.351	.018	.415	. 883
FOM	.343	.235	.228	.088	. 728
Neuroticism	−.299	−.244	−.348	−.243	−.217	. 743
Openness	.216	.048	.318	.552	.059	−.188	.880

Bold italicized is square root of AVE.

The Heterotrait–Monotrait (HTMT) Ratio of Correlations was employed to assess discriminant validity, with all values falling below the established threshold of .85, thereby confirming that the constructs were sufficiently distinct from one another. SMA exhibited the highest HTMT ratio with conscientiousness (.632), and moderate ratios with extraversion (.436) and FOM (.448). Additionally, neuroticism demonstrated moderate HTMT values for conscientiousness (.458) and agreeableness (.396). These findings suggest that the measurement model satisfied the criteria for discriminant validity, thereby ensuring that each construct was capable of measuring a unique concept (Table 3).

Table 3.

Heterotrait–Monotrait Ratio of Correlations (HTMT) Discrimination Validity of the Measurement Model.

	SMA	Agreeableness	Conscientiousness	Extraversion	FOM	Neuroticism
Addiction
Agreeableness	.394
Conscientiousness	.632	.447
Extraversion	.436	.119	.556
FOM	.448	.366	.307	.140
Neuroticism	.360	.396	.458	.339	.266
Openness	.281	.075	.439	.778	.083	.257

The model fit statistics indicated that the standardized root mean square residual (SRMR) was .078, which is below the .08 threshold, suggesting a good fit. A chi-square value of 1,510.325 and normed fit index (NFI) of .573 suggest that the model has an acceptable fit, although the NFI is somewhat lower than the ideal value of .90. Overall, the SRMR supported the model's fit, indicating that the model adequately represented the data (Table 4).

Table 4.

Assessment of Model Fit Statistics.

	SRMR	d_ULS	d_G	Chi-square	NFI
Saturated model	.078	1.957	.599	1,510.325	.573
Estimated model	.078	1.957	.599	1,510.325	.573
The value of R square and Q square
	R²	Q²
SMA	.345	.164
FOM	.099	.044

The R-squared (R²) and Q-squared (Q²) values offer critical insights into the explanatory power and predictive relevance of the model. For SMA, the R² value is .345, signifying that 34.5% of the variance in SMA can be accounted for by the independent variables, reflecting a moderate degree of explanatory power. The Q² value of .164 further indicates that the model has a medium level of predictive relevance for SMA. In contrast, for FOM, the R² value is .099, suggesting that only 9.9% of the variance in FOM is explained, thereby indicating relatively weak explanatory power. A Q² value of .044 demonstrated a low predictive relevance for FOM. Overall, the model elucidates the variance in SMA with reasonable efficacy; however, the predictive power of the FOM remains limited (Table 4).

Structural Model

The path coefficient and hypothesis testing results indicated that several hypotheses were supported. Conscientiousness exhibited a significant positive relationship with FOM (H2, β = .145, p = .005) and SMA (H7, β = .335, p < .001). Neuroticism demonstrated a negative relationship with FOM (H4, β = −.128, p = .014), whereas agreeableness displayed a significant positive relationship with both FOM (H5, β = .167, p = .003) and SMA (H10, β = .081, p = .045). Extraversion was significantly related to SMA (H6, β = .187, p = .002), but did not show a significant relationship with FOM (H1, p = .914). Furthermore, FOM significantly predicted SMA (H11, β = .216, p < .001). However, openness did not exhibit a significant relationship with FOM or SMA. Overall, the results substantiate several key relationships with conscientiousness, agreeableness, and FOM playing critical roles in predicting SMA (Table 5).

Table 5.

The Path Coefficient and Hypothesis Testing.

Hypothesis	Path	β	SD	T statistics	p-values
H1	Extraversion → FOM	.007	.061	0.108	.914
H2	Conscientiousness → FOM	.145	.052	2.791	.005
H3	Openness → FOM	−.022	.058	0.387	.699
H4	Neuroticism → FOM	−.128	.052	2.449	.014
H5	Agreeableness → FOM	.167	.055	3.015	.003
H6	Extraversion → SMA	.187	.060	3.125	.002
H7	Conscientiousness → SMA	.335	.046	7.225	.000
H8	Openness → SMA	−.024	.054	0.453	.651
H9	Neuroticism → SMA	−.075	.045	1.659	.097
H10	Agreeableness → SMA	.081	.041	2.006	.045
H11	FOM → SMA	.216	.043	4.985	.000

The summary of the total effects in the model delineates several significant relationships between personality traits, FOM, and SMA. Conscientiousness exhibited a positive effect on FOM (β = .145, p = .005) and a robust positive effect on SMA (β = .367, p < .001), positioning it as a key predictor for both the constructs. Conversely, neuroticism negatively influenced FOM (β = −.128, p = .014) and SMA (β = −.103, p = .024), suggesting that higher levels of neuroticism were associated with lower levels of FOM and SMA. Agreeableness positively affected FOM (β = .167, p = .003) and SMA (β = .118, p = .004). In contrast, extraversion demonstrated a positive effect on both FOM (β = .007, p = .914) and SMA (β = .188, p = .002), whereas openness to experience did not reveal significant effects on either construct. FOM emerged as a significant predictor of SMA (β = .216, p < .001), highlighting its mediating role in the relationship between personality traits and SMA. Collectively, these results underscore that conscientiousness, agreeableness, and neuroticism are significant factors that influence both FOM and SMA (Table 6).

Table 6.

Summary of Total Effects in the Model.

Path	β	SD	T statistics	p-values
Extraversion → FOM	.007	.061	0.108	.914
Conscientiousness → FOM	.145	.052	2.791	.005
Openness → FOM	−.022	.058	0.387	.699
Neuroticism → FOM	−.128	.052	2.449	.014
Agreeableness → FOM	.167	.055	3.015	.003
Extraversion → SMA	.188	.061	3.092	.002
Conscientiousness → SMA	.367	.046	7.982	.000
Openness → SMA	−.029	.055	0.537	.591
Neuroticism → SMA	−.103	.045	2.264	.024
Agreeableness → SMA	.118	.041	2.845	.004
FOM → SMA	.216	.043	4.985	.000

The results of the path analysis revealed both the direct and indirect effects of personality traits on SMA through FOM. Agreeableness exhibited a positive direct effect on SMA (β = .081, p = .045) and an indirect effect via FOM (β = .036, p = .015), resulting in a total effect of β = .118 (p = .004). Similarly, conscientiousness demonstrated a substantial direct effect on SMA (β = .335, p < .001) and an indirect effect through FOM (β = .031, p = .020), culminating in a total effect of β = .367 (p < .001). In contrast, extraversion was found to have a direct effect on SMA (β = .187, p = .002) but did not exhibit a significant indirect effect through FOM. Neuroticism negatively affected both SMA (β = −.075, p = .097) and FOM (β = −.128, p = .014), yielding an indirect effect that resulted in a total effect of β = −.103 (p = .024). Lastly, openness did not demonstrate significant direct or indirect effects on either SMA or FOM. These findings underscore the pivotal roles of agreeableness and conscientiousness in predicting SMA, with FOM serving as a mediating factor, whereas neuroticism is associated with a negative influence on both SMA and FOM (Table 7).

Table 7.

Path Analysis: Direct, Indirect, and Total Effects.

		Direct effect		Indirect effect		Total effect
Hypothesis	Path	β	p-values	β	p-values	β	p-values
H1	Agreeableness → SMA	.081	.045	.036	.015	.118	.004
H2	Agreeableness → FOM	.167	.003	-	-	.167	.003
H3	Conscientiousness → SMA	.335	.000	.031	.020	.367	.000
H4	Conscientiousness → FOM	.145	.005	-	-	.145	.005
H5	Extraversion → SMA	.187	.002	.001	.916	.188	.002
H6	Extraversion → FOM	.007	.914	-	-	.007	.914
H7	FOM → SMA	.216	.000	-	-	.216	.000
H8	Neuroticism → SMA	−.075	.097	−.028	.027	−.103	.024
H9	Neuroticism → FOM	−.128	.014	-	-	−.128	.014
H10	Openness → SMA	−.024	.651	−.005	.707	−.029	.591
H11	Openness → FOM	−.022	.699	-	-	−.022	.699

Multiple-group analysis revealed notable sex differences in the examined pathways. Agreeableness demonstrated a more pronounced effect on SMA for females (difference = .190, p = .068), although this finding did not reach statistical significance. Conversely, the relationship between FOM and SMA was significantly stronger in females (difference = −.225, p = .029). No significant differences were observed in the effects of conscientiousness, extraversion, neuroticism, or openness on SMA or FOM across genders, indicating similar influences, irrespective of gender (Table 8).

Table 8.

Multiple-Group Analysis.

Path	Path coefficients difference (female–male)	p-value (female vs. male)
Agreeableness → SMA	.190	.068
Agreeableness → FOM	−.007	.936
Conscientiousness → SMA	.129	.270
Conscientiousness → FOM	−.079	.497
Extraversion → SMA	.165	.204
Extraversion → FOM	−.177	.178
FOM → SMA	−.225	.029
Neuroticism → SMA	−.022	.868
Neuroticism → FOM	.049	.684
Openness → SMA	−.047	.693
Openness → FOM	.180	.197

Discussion

This study aimed to explore the interactions among personality traits, FOM, and SMA. Additionally, it sought to examine the mediating role of FOM in the relationship between personality traits and SMA, while also examining potential gender differences in these relationships through multiple-group analyses. The results indicated that the structural model demonstrated robust reliability and validity across all constructs, meeting the criteria for both convergent and discriminant validity while exhibiting a good overall fit. Path coefficient analyses indicated that conscientiousness was positively associated with FOM, whereas neuroticism had a negative relationship with FOM. Agreeableness positively influenced FOM, and extraversion exhibited a significant relationship with SMA but not with FOM. Importantly, FOM significantly predicted SMA, thereby highlighting its mediating role. The indirect effects analysis revealed that conscientiousness exerted both direct and indirect effects on SMA through FOM, while agreeableness also demonstrated direct and indirect effects on SMA via FOM. In contrast, neuroticism was shown to have an overall negative effect on the SMA. Notably, gender differences were observed, with the relationship between FOM and SMA being significantly stronger in females.

This study revealed that conscientiousness was positively associated with FOM. Conscientiousness is a personality trait that features responsibility, organization, and self-discipline. Therefore, conscientious persons frequently have a strong desire to be updated, which causes them to experience FOM when they feel detached from social events (Przybylski et al., 2013). Consequently, their dedication to social expectations may encourage them to persist in social media roles and therefore increase the risk of FOM.

In this study, FOM significantly predicted SMA, highlighting its mediating role. This result is congruent with a previous study that found a significant relationship between FOM and SMA among university students (Nafisa et al., 2024). This can be explained by that nursing students as their academic and clinical course requirements rely on social media for educational updates, peer interactions, and social links (Przybylski et al., 2013). Moreover, social media can offer an outlet for escaping from coursework and duties pressure and for encouraging dependency (Marciano et al., 2020). Also, this result may be viewed as peer force and social comparison encourages nursing students to regularly check social media to avoid exclusion feeling, which can increase their engagement. Finally, following the latest medical updates pushes nursing students to use social media, sponsoring addictive behavior. This pattern of stress, peer pressure, social connection, and validation demands affects nursing students’ susceptibility to FOM and SMA.

In the current study, the neuroticism personality trait was found to have a negative relationship with SMA and FOM. This can be rationalized by several key characteristics of neurotic persons. Neuroticism is associated with negative emotional states such as anxiety, irritability, anger, and vulnerability. These individuals are more sensitive to stress and negative feelings, which can make them more likely to turn to social media for comfort or distraction (Mak et al., 2021). They often engage in passive social media use, such as scrolling without interaction and comparing their lives with others, which may reinforce loneliness and exacerbate anxiety (Marciano et al., 2020). Their enhanced sensitivity to rejection directs them to seek validation via feedback on their posts, with unmet hopes strengthening negative emotions (Bowden-Green et al., 2021). Likewise, neurotic persons may depend on social media to evade real-life stressors, increasing their use and addiction to these platforms (Marciano et al., 2020). Consequently, the findings substantiate a correlation between individuals exhibiting elevated levels of neuroticism and both SMA and FOMO.

Furthermore, this study reported that agreeableness was found to positively influence FOM. This can be explained by the agreeable person being empathetic, cooperative, and would keep positive relations; this will lead to being active on social media to gain social approval and may lead to FOM. Additionally, those personalities are prone to social comparison, and this may lead them to feel inadequate and so feed up to SMA to solve this conflict (Przybylski et al., 2013). It is very important to note the effects of positive reinforcement through social media positive feedback in the form of likes, comments might help in increasing the feeling of FOM and addition.

Moreover, the study revealed a significant correlation between extraversion and SMA. An extroverted person is characterized by sociability, assertiveness, and enthusiasm. Their energy is heightened through social interactions, considering that social media is a convenient engagement platform that can cause addiction. In addition, being more sensitive to rewards, specifically social validation by immediate social media feedback through likes and comments, reinforces social media overuse (Ajewumi et al., 2024). Also, extroverted persons enjoy attracting attention and getting social visibility, and social media achieves their intention by showcasing their lives, increasing SMA (Nopiana et al., 2022). Therefore, this rationalized the current result of the positive significant relation between extraversion personality traits and SMA.

In this study, gender differences were observed, with the relationship between FOM and SMA being significantly stronger in females. This result is supported by previous studies (Kircaburun et al., 2020; Ksiksou et al., 2023). For instance, in Morocco, among 388 nursing students, females were found to have intent addiction more than males (Ksiksou et al., 2023). This can be rationalized by the female's value of social and emotional investment, and social media helps them to maintain relations, stay updated about family and friends’ conditions, and attain information and educational benefits, while males use it for recreational benefits. In addition, it was reported that females will use social media for social comparison of themselves to others’ curated and idealized images and lifestyles. Furthermore, societal pressures regarding social roles, beauty, and lifestyle are predictably stronger for females than males, leading to a heightened need for social interaction and validation on social media. This pressure may lead to SMA and, therefore, FOM (Vandenbosch et al., 2022).

Limitations

There are several limitations to knowledge. Firstly, it depends solely on self-report measures prone to personal bias. Secondly, the sample consisted only of nursing university students recruited from one college, limiting generalizability. In addition, the study's design is cross-sectional, which inhibits the causal relationships between the variables’ determination. Furthermore, while the majority of model fit indices fell within acceptable ranges, the NFI was below the recommended threshold, indicating that the model may not adequately represent the complexity of the relationships among the constructs. Therefore, future studies are encouraged to incorporate a mixed methods design and be more nationally diverse. In addition, it investigates other variables that may be linked to SMA, such as body image, lifestyle, general well-being, and perception of social support among nursing students to provide a broader understanding of the topic of SMA and FOM.

Implications for Practice

Based on the findings of the study, it is recommended that individualized strategies, tailored to specific personality types, be implemented to enhance the effectiveness of social media utilization among nursing students and to mitigate its potential negative impacts. For introverted students, using social media for learning, such as joining online study groups, can reduce stress and enhance learning. Extroverted students, on the other hand, can benefit from networking and engaging in professional discourse. Conscientious students should focus on structured content, like following healthcare organizations. For agreeable students, participating in support groups or online communities can be beneficial. By applying these strategies, students can engage with social media in a way that aligns with their personality, leading to optimal outcomes.

Conclusion

This study explored how personality traits, SMA, and FOM are interconnected, with FOM acting as a mediator between personality traits and SMA. The findings revealed strong reliability in the model, with extraversion being the most reliable trait. SMA was strongly linked to conscientiousness and moderately to extraversion and FOM. Conscientiousness, agreeableness, and FOM increased SMA, while neuroticism had a negative impact. FOM was a significant predictor of SMA, especially for females. The study suggests that tailored strategies based on personality traits could help nursing students use social media more effectively and avoid its negative impacts.

Footnotes

ORCID iDs

Amira Alshowkan

Emad Shdaifat

Ethical Approval and Consent to Participate

The study received ethical approval from the Institutional Review Board (IRB) at Imam Abdulrahman Bin Faisal University (IAU), under approval number IRB-2024-04-475. Informed consent was secured from study participants.

Author Contributions

Conceptualization: A.A. Methodology: A.A. and E.S. Software: E.S. Formal analysis: E.S. Writing: all authors. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.

Funding

The authors received no financial support for the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article.

Declaration of Conflicting Interests

The authors declared no potential conflicts of interest with respect to the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article.

Availability of Data and Materials

The data are available from the corresponding author upon request.

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