The Silent Divide: Leader-Member Exchange,Communication Anxiety,and Age-Related Defensive Silence

Abstract

Modern workplace demographics are changing and so too are workplace relationships. This research explores the impact of poor leader relationships on voice behaviors—more specifically, defensive silence. Results indicate a negative relationship between leader-member exchange (LMX) and defensive silence, a positive relationship between communicative anxiety and defensive silence, and a negative relationship between communicative anxiety and LMX. Additionally, a significant interaction is found between age, years of supervisory experience, LMX, and defensive silence. Theoretical and practical implications for workplace relationships are discussed.

Keywords

defensive silence leader-member exchange (LMX)communication anxiety workplace relationships work experience

Get full access to this article

View all access options for this article.

References

Afonso

Fonseca

Teodoro

(2021). Evaluation of anxiety, depression and sleep quality of teleworkers. Journal of Public Health, 44(4), 797–804. https://doi.org/10.1093/pubmed/fdab164

Ansberry

(2023). How to handle generational differences at work? One family offers a blueprint. Wall Street Journal. https://www.wsj.com/lifestyle/workplace/how-to-handle-generational-differences-at-work-one-family-offers-a-blueprint-ed6151

Bandalos

D. L.

(2021). Item meaning and order as causes of correlated residuals in confirmatory factor analysis. Structural Equation Modeling: A Multidisciplinary Journal, 28(6), 903–913. https://doi.org/10.1080/10705511.2021.1916395

Bisel

R. S.

Greer

R. J.

Beaty

R. R.

Okpaireh

(2024). Imagined interactions with the boss: Upward dissent and defensive silence in organizations. Management Communication Quarterly, 38(4), 923–941. https://doi.org/10.1177/08933189241239183

Booth-Butterfield

Gould

(1986). The communication anxiety inventory: Validation of state- and context-communication apprehension. Communication Quarterly, 34(2), 194–205. https://doi.org/10.1080/01463378609369633

Brown

T. A.

(2015). Confirmatory factor analysis for applied research (2nd ed.). Guilford Press.

Chang

Chou

S. Y.

Han

(2021). Silent leaders in the workplace: Forms of leadership, attributions of leadership silence, and accuracy of attributions. International Journal of Business Communication, 58(4), 490–515. https://doi.org/10.1177/2329488418777041

Chou

S. Y.

Chang

(2020). Employee silence and silence antecedents: A theoretical classification. International Journal of Business Communication, 57(3), 401–426. https://doi.org/10.1177/2329488417703301

Dedahanov

A. T.

Rhee

(2015). Examining the relationships among trust, silence and organizational commitment. Management Decision, 53(8), 1843–1857. https://doi.org/10.1108/MD-02-2015-0041

10.

Detert

J. R.

Edmondson

A. C.

(2011). Implicit voice theories: Taken-for-granted rules of self-censorship at work. Academy of Management Journal, 54(3), 461–488. https://doi.org/10.5465/amj.2011.61967925

11.

DiStefano

Zhu

Mîndrilã

(2009). Understanding and using factor scores: Considerations for the applied researcher. Practical Assessment, Research, and Evaluation, 14, Article 20. https://doi.org/10.7275/da8t-4g52

12.

Douglas

B. D.

Ewell

P. J.

Brauer

(2023). Data quality in online human-subjects research: Comparisons between MTurk, Prolific, CloudResearch, Qualtrics, and SONA. PLoS One, 18(3), Article e0279720. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0279720

13.

Dundon

(2018). The fracturing of work and employment relations. Labour and Industry, 29(1), 6–18. https://doi.org/10.1080/10301763.2018.1537047

14.

Fry

Braga

(2023, December 14). Older workers are growing in number and earning higher wages. Pew Research Center. https://www.pewresearch.org/social-trends/2023/12/14/older-workers-are-growing-in-number-and-earning-higher-wages/

15.

Furunes

Mykletun

R. J.

Einarsen

Glasø

(2015). Do low-quality leader-member relationships matter for subordinates? Evidence from three samples on the validity of the Norwegian LMX scale. Nordic Journal of Working Life Studies, 5(2), 71. https://doi.org/10.19154/njwls.v5i2.4794

16.

Goodwin

R. D.

Weinberger

A. H.

Kim

J. H.

Galea

(2020). Trends in anxiety among adults in the United States, 2008-2018: Rapid increases among young adults. Journal of Psychiatric Research, 130, 441–446. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jpsychires.2020.08.014

17.

Graen

G. B.

Uhl-Bien

(1995). Relationship-based approach to leadership: Development of leader-member exchange (LMX) theory of leadership over 25 years: Applying a multi-level multi-domain perspective. Leadership Quarterly, 6(2), 219–247. https://doi.org/10.1016/1048-9843(95)90036-5

18.

Guo

Decoster

Babalola

M. T.

De Schutter

Garba

O. A.

Riisla

(2018). Authoritarian leadership and employee creativity: The moderating role of psychological capital and the mediating role of fear and defensive silence. Journal of Business Research, 92, 219–230. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jbusres.2018.07.034

19.

Hershberger

S. L.

(2005). Factor scores. In Everitt

B. S.

Howell

D. C.

(Eds.), Encyclopedia of statistics in behavioral science (pp. 636–644). John Wiley.

20.

Bentler

P. M.

(1999). Cutoff criteria for fit indexes in covariance structure analysis: Conventional criteria versus new alternatives. Structural Equation Modeling: A Multidisciplinary Journal, 6(1), 1–55. https://doi.org/10.1080/10705519909540118

21.

Inceoglu

Segers

Bartram

(2012). Age-related differences in work motivation. Journal of Occupational and Organizational Psychology, 85(2), 300–329. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.2044-8325.2011.02035.x

22.

Jahanzeb

Fatima

(2018). How workplace ostracism influences interpersonal deviance: The mediating role of defensive silence and emotional exhaustion. Journal of Business and Psychology, 33(6), 779–791. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10869-017-9525-6

23.

Joseph

D. L.

Newman

D. A.

Sin

H.-P.

(2011). Leader-member exchange (LMX) measurement: Evidence for consensus, construct breadth, and discriminant validity. In Bergh

D. D.

Ketchen

D. J.

(Eds.), Research methodology in strategy and management (Vol. 6, pp. 89-135). Emerald Group Publishing Limited. https://doi.org/10.1108/S1479-8387(2011)0000006012

24.

Kassing

J. W.

(2000). Investigating the relationship between superior-subordinate relationship quality and employee dissent. Communication Research Reports, 17(1), 58–69. https://doi.org/10.1080/08824090009388751

25.

Kassing

J. W.

Kava

(2013). Assessing disagreement expressed to management: Development of the upward dissent scale. Communication Research Reports, 30(1), 46–56. https://doi.org/10.1080/08824096.2012.746225

26.

Kramer

M. W.

Danielson

M. A.

(2016). Developing and re-developing volunteer roles: The case of ongoing assimilation of docent zoo volunteers. Management Communication Quarterly, 30(1), 103–120. https://doi.org/10.1177/0893318915612551

27.

Lee

Lim

J. J. C.

Heath

R. L.

(2021). Coping with workplace bullying through NAVER: Effects of LMX relational concerns and cultural differences. International Journal of Business Communication, 58(1), 79–105. https://doi.org/10.1177/2329488417735649

28.

Lee

Varon

A. L.

(2020). Employee exit, voice, loyalty, and neglect in response to dissatisfying organizational situations: It depends on supervisory relationship quality. International Journal of Business Communication, 57(1), 30–51. https://doi.org/10.1177/2329488416675839

29.

Lewis

(2020). The power of strategic listening in contemporary organizations. Rowan.

30.

Liu

Mao

Chiang

J. T.

Guo

Zhang

(2023). When and why does voice sustain or stop? The roles of leader behaviours, power differential perception and psychological safety. Applied Psychology, 72(3), 1209–1247. https://doi.org/10.1111/apps.12432

31.

Lloyd

K. J.

Boer

Voelpel

S. C.

(2017). From listening to leading: Toward an understanding of supervisor listening within the framework of leader-member exchange theory. International Journal of Business Communication, 54(4), 431–451. https://doi.org/10.1177/2329488415572778

32.

Madlock

P. E.

Martin

M. M.

Bogdan

Ervin

(2007). The impact of communication traits on leader-member exchange. Human Communication, 10(4), 451–464. https://rb.gy/19lezw

33.

Marcel

(2022). Communication apprehension across the career span. International Journal of Business Communication, 59(4), 506–530. https://doi.org/10.1177/2329488419856803

34.

Martin

Guillaume

Thomas

Lee

Epitropaki

(2016). Leader-member exchange (LMX) and performance: A meta-analytic review. Personnel Psychology, 69, 67–121. https://doi.org/10.1111/peps.12100

35.

McCroskey

(1984). The communication apprehension perspective. In Daly

McCroskey

(Eds.), Avoiding communication (pp. 13–38). Sage.

36.

Okafor

B. E.

Muhabbat

M. Y.

Kingsley Westerman

C. Y.

(2021). Manager-employee communication: The influence of temperament and leader-member exchange quality on employees’ use of upward dissent strategies. Western Journal of Communication, 85(3), 400–426. https://doi.org/10.1080/10570314.2020.1850850

37.

Peer

Rothschild

Gordon

Evernden

Damer

(2021). Data quality of platforms and panels for online behavioral research. Behavior Research Methods, 54(4), 1643–1662. https://doi.org/10.3758/s13428-021-01694-3

38.

F.-S.

Ramayah

(2022). Defensive silence, defensive voice, knowledge hiding, and counterproductive work behavior through the lens of stimulus-organism-response. Frontiers in Psychology, 13, 1–8. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2022.822008

39.

R Core Team. (2022). R: A language and environment for statistical computing (4.2.2) [Computer software]. R Foundation for Statistical Computing. https://www.R-project.org/

40.

Rockel

(2022). missMethods: Methods for missing data (0.4.0) [Computer software]. https://CRAN.R-project.org/package=missMethods

41.

Rosseel

(2012). Lavaan: An R package for structural equation modeling. Journal of Statistical Software, 48(2), 1–36. https://doi.org/10.18637/jss.v048.i02

42.

Scheibe

Yeung

D. Y.

Doerwald

(2019). Age-related differences in levels and dynamics of workplace affect. Psychology and Affect, 34(1), 106–123. https://doi.org/10.1037/pag0000305

43.

Sheu

Kogan

J. R.

Hauer

K. E.

(2017). How supervisor experience influences trust, supervision, and trainee learning: A qualitative study. Academic Medicine, 92(9), 1320–1327. https://doi.org/10.1097/acm.0000000000001560

44.

Sijbom

R. B. L.

Janssen

Van Yperen

N. W.

(2015). Leaders’ receptivity to subordinates’ creative input: The role of achievement goals and composition of creative input. European Journal of Work and Organizational Psychology, 24(3), 462–478. https://doi.org/10.1080/1359432X.2014.964215

45.

Suinn

R. M.

(1969). The relationship between fears and anxiety: A further study. Behavior Research and Therapy, 7(3), 317–318. https://doi.org/10.1016/0005-7967(69)90013-8

46.

Tamir

(2019, August 19). G7 nations stand out for their low birth rates, aging populations. Pew Research Center. https://www.pewresearch.org/short-reads/2019/08/23/g7-nations-stand-out-for-their-low-birth-rates-aging-populations/

47.

Thompson

D. N.

Hoffman

L. A.

Sereika

S. M.

Lorenz

H. L.

Wolf

G. A.

Burns

H. K.

Minnier

T. E.

Ramanujam

(2011). A relational leadership perspective on unit-level safety climate. Journal of Nursing Administration, 41(11), 479–487. https://doi.org/10.1097/NNA.0b013e3182346e31

48.

Turnage

A. K.

Goodboy

A. K.

(2016). E-mail and face-to-face organizational dissent as a function of leader-member exchange status. International Journal of Business Communication, 53(3), 271–285. https://doi.org/10.1177/2329488414525456

49.

Van Dyne

Ang

Botero

I. C

. (2003). Conceptualizing employee silence and employee voice as multidimensional constructs. Journal of Management Studies, 40(6), 1359–1392. https://doi.org/10.1111/1467-6486.00384

50.

Vecchio

(1993). The impact of differences in subordinate and supervisor age on attitudes and performance. Psychology and Aging, 8(1), 112–119. https://doi.org/10.1037/0882-7974.8.1.112

51.

Yadav

Sakib

M. N.

Nirjhar

E. H.

Feng

Behzadan

A. H.

Chaspari

(2022). Exploring individual differences of public speaking anxiety in real-life and virtual presentations. IEEE Transactions on Affective Computing, 13(3), 1168–1182. https://doi.org/10.1109/TAFFC.2020.3048299

52.

Zanin

A. C.

Bisel

R. S.

(2023). Structurational divergence, implicit orientations to active followership, and employees’ selection of upward dissent strategies and silence. Management Communication Quarterly, 37(4), 711–731. https://doi.org/10.1177/08933189221146186