The Role of the Banjaras as Commissariat in the Mughal Military Expeditions,c. 1526–1720 AD

Abstract

One of the most important reasons behind the success of the Mughal military campaigns and expeditions was the regular supply of the rasad (ration), fodder and forage to the location of military encampment. It has been observed that due to lack of proper supply and transport of the food material, the armies often had even starved. ¹ Indeed, this scarcity was caused due to the non-arrival of the banjaras on time with various supplies. ² Consequently, the Mughal rulers and military commanders always tried their best to utilise the services of the banjaras, especially during their engagement in military campaigns. In the absence of any specific department regarding the supply of food, grain, and fodder to the far distant locality during the military campaigns, the Mughal state mainly depended upon the services provided by the Banjaras as the transporters of essential commodities required for the Mughal military expeditions. The logistics associated to procurement of foodstuff and fodder was crucial related to the Mughal military expeditions. Consequently, in this context, the usefulness of banjaras as transporter was undoubtedly of great importance.

Introduction

More importantly, this article will intend to explain how the regular procurement of food, fodder and forage was a significant reason behind the success of the military campaigns. The military expedition without the regular food supply was ineffective. It has been observed that due to the lack of proper supply and transport of the food material, the armies had often starved. In 1576 AD, during the siege of Kokandan (Suba Ajmer), Akbar’s army suffered due to a great scarcity of food grains. This scarcity was caused due to disturbances faced by the food suppliers. ³ During the Assam campaigns, the Mughal army at Mathurpur suffered a severe shortage of food because the supplies to the Mughal camp got disturbed due to bad weather. ⁴ This article will explore who were the food transporters and how were they associated with the state. Therefore, to understand the proper mechanism of food supply, I intend to explain the role of the Mughal administration and their effort to manage the food supply. I intend to raise the question, was there any fixed institution of commissariat responsible for the supply of food, fodder, and forage? During the major campaigns and expeditions, how the supplies were made up to the destination and did any community have a monopoly over the war supplies? The reason behind the success of campaigns and expeditions was the regular supply of the rasad (ration), fodder and forage, which had to be constant. It has been observed that due to a lack of proper supply and transport of food material, the armies often starved, and this scarcity was caused due to the non-arrival of the Banjaras on time with various supplies. ⁵ The Banjara community was an intrinsic element of the medieval society associated with market economy, mercantile communities and to the medieval state.

The role of the Banjaras in Indian agrarian commerce was significant in exchange of agrarian raw materials and other mercantile commodities through their active participation in inland transport. The agrarian raw materials and other goods were carried by camels, bullocks and oxen owned by them. Apart from this, the agrarian products were even brought by them to the market of deltaic lowlands from the upland hills. ⁶ During the early modern period, the Banjaras were fundamentally engaged with trading and transporting activities to sustain their life and attained an important position in the inter-regional trading network of the medieval state and market economy. The most renowned among the pastoral-nomadic groups of the medieval times were the Banjaras who controlled and organised the transport of agrarian raw materials, mercantile commodities and other essential goods for the merchants and the medieval state, simultaneously. ⁷ During the military campaigns, they also supplied the raw food material to the imperial army. Indeed, their continuous and traditional engagement with trading and transporting proclaimed the universal status of intermediator for the state, merchants and common populace and could move freely throughout the Indian subcontinent of South Asia without any local disturbances. The protection of movement of Banjara communities, and their lives and properties, was even assured by the local landlords, chieftains and administrative officers as well as the other regional states due their regular contribution.

The Mughals and the Role of Banjaras as the Commissariat

Throughout the Mughal period, the banjaras played a vitally significant role as suppliers of various items to the military forces and civil population living in urban areas. There are plenty of references in the Indo-Persian and vernacular sources which record about the banjaras were employed as transporters for the procuring of grains and other commodities to the Mughal forces. The efficiency of banjaras on the battlefield has even been realised and praised by the Mughal emperor Jahangir in his memoir as the following:

In this country the Banjaras are a fixed class of people, who possess a thousand oxen, or more or less, varying in numbers. They bring grain from the villages to the towns and also accompany armies. ⁸

The above passage illustrates that the Mughals had utilised the services of banjaras up to their maximum level, apart from the supplying of mercantile commodities in the Mughal cities and towns, its role was even greatly attributed for their success in military campaigns. The effectiveness and usefulness of these homogenous communities in the absence of any means of state-sponsored transport was undoubtedly of greater significance. The aim of this section is to examine the role of the banjaras as commissariat to the Mughal army apart from transporting feeding items and other commodities to the civil population.

As far as the transportation of commodities related to long-distance trade and procurement of food grains to the battlefield is concerned, the banjaras were considered very significant as the main carrier or transporter, who used packed oxen. ⁹ Regarding the role of banjaras as carrier of commodities has been illustrated by Peter Mundy as following:

This Banjara carry all their household along with them, as wives and children, one Tanda consisting of many families. Their course of life is somewhat like Carriers, continually driving from place to place …. There may be in such a Tanda 6 or 700 persons, men, women and children. There men are very lustie, there women hardie, whoe in occasion of fight, lay about them like men. This people go dispersedly [i.e. well spread out], driving their laden oxen before them, their journey not above 6 or 7 mile a day at most, and that in the Coolie. ¹⁰

The established role of banjaras as the transporter and carrier of goods and commodities to the Mughal cities, towns and battlefields has even been praised by the Mughal emperor Jahangir and further illustrates:

They bring grain from villages to the towns and also accompany armies. With an army [like one then being prepared for Qandahar], there may be a hundred thousand oxen or more. ¹¹

It is important to note that the Mughals provided political and economic stability with the establishment of proper administrative mechanisms. Indeed, it intrinsically contributed to the growth of multiple industrial and trading centres throughout the Mughal terrain, and the commodities both manufactured and agricultural products were transported from one place to another place with the help of a specialised class of nomadic tribe, that is, the banjaras. Consequently, these cattle-keeper communities were traditionally engaged in transporting goods and commodities to various parts of the South-Asian subcontinent. They even played an intrinsically significant role in the growth and development of long-distance trade during the Mughal period. Indeed, in return of dependency on banjaras as the commissariat and transporters supporting consistent economic growth, the Mughals provided banjaras with multiple facilities and privileges. Their rights of monopoly as transporters of goods and commodities were protected on administrative grounds. The Bahar-i-Azam, an Indo-Persian text, illustrates that the faujdar, ‘the hakim, outside the city, like the kotwal inside the city’, apart from ensuring the law and order and preventing thefts and other crime within the Mughal suba, was also responsible for patrolling the highways leading to and from cities. ¹² The control over police chaukis was also under his jurisdiction. ¹³ They were frequently instructed by the Mughal authority to see that banjaras and merchants should not be robbed, even illegal exaction should not be charged upon them, while they were on their way to supply grain and other commodities to the city. ¹⁴ Apart from this, there are references that the exactions of any kind of taxes from banjaras communities was declared illegal during the reign of Aurangzeb, though they were even not being charged for grazing their animals while moving from one place to another, as well. ¹⁵ Simultaneously, we also come across while surveying the sources that on many occasions the faujdar, rahdar and the other officials concerned with long-distance trade routes were transferred or dismissed if they failed to check robberies or thefts, and even if they did not take proper preventive action related to the banjaras communities. ¹⁶ It was under obligation to the Mughal administrative officials to provide security to the lives and properties of the banjaras. ¹⁷ Consequently, they were also instructed to send all the reports regarding to the movement of the banjaras directly to the Mughal court. This was essential in the context to maintain the proper supply system of grains and other commodities for the royal armies on campaign. ¹⁸ Subsequently, the dependency of the civil population as well as the royal army on campaigns over the arrival of the banjaras has even been discussed by Badauni, the sixteenth-century court writer, who designated them as the transporters as well as grain sellers, called them ‘the Banjaras of the army’, and further highlighted the social and economic significance of the banjaras through mentioning many instances of their non-arrival and the consequential adversities caused to the waiting army and civil population. ¹⁹ Indeed, their significance as commissariat can even be understood through the Mughal failure during Balk campaign in 1647 was a failure to maintain proper food supply through routes over the Hindu Kush. ²⁰

William Irvine illustrates that the responsibilities regarding the commissariat were left in the hand of the Mughal army and they had to take care of the procurement of food and fodder by themselves. The imperial kitchen was there to feed only a certain number of officials, military commanders and servants, called the langar khanah, at the emperor’s expense. ²¹ Outside this management, others were availing their daily requirements of food by themselves, for which they were buying their daily wants from numerous dealers, merchants and baniyas who accompanied the imperial army had established bazaars or market within the army encampment. ²² The supplies of grains, pulses, salt and other commodities were brought to military encampment by the group of nomadic communities on the backs of bullocks, were working as commissariat for the Mughal army, known as ‘wandering dealers’, the banjaras. ²³ The banjaras not only continued to function as an important conduit for overland transportation in context of the South Asian commercial activities, their involvement with the imperial army as freelance supplier of bulk of items throughout the Mughal period, the banjaras played a significant role in the military campaigns. They procured mostly grains for the moving armies. ²⁴ Consequently, they occupied a virtual monopoly, annually transporting thousands of tons of commodities on the back of their bullocks. ²⁵ Their movement was slow as 10 mi/day, but not much slower than the advancing armies. The dependency of the Mughals on the banjaras was also economically reasonable as it was less expensive than other means of transporting the supplies to the battlefield. Indeed, the accessibility of the service of the banjaras prohibited and decreased the ongoing expense of a standing Mughal commissariat. ²⁶ Simultaneously, the Mughal military commanders and administrators relied upon the banjaras for procurement of grains and other items at a suitable price rather than accompanying thousands of loaded cattle across inhospitable terrain. The Mughals relied on a traditional mode of arrangement which was mutually convenient. James Mill illustrated that the Mughals were assured of necessary supplies by the banjaras when they were far from their agricultural base, and the banjaras were granted free passage as the transporters throughout the Mughal terrain in return of their service as commissariat to the Mughal army. In acknowledgement of their vital role, the banjaras enjoyed several autonomies argued by James Mill as the following: ‘The experienced utility of their service has procured them considerable privileges. They are regarded as neutral in all wars; they enjoy a right of transit through all countries; and the armies, which spare nothing else, act under a species of obligation, seldom violated, of respecting the properties of the Brinjarries.’ ²⁷

While writing about the banjaras, Irfan Habib also concludes that the political and military conquest of the Mughals as well as the consistent economic growth can be attributed primarily to the banjaras, who assisted the imperial army as the commissariat, and established commercial exchange, connectivity, co-operation and co-ordination amongst numerous mercantile communities as transporters of the commodities. ²⁸ In support of banjara as the Mughal commissariat, Jos Gommans illustrates, ‘the Mughal success in the Deccan was entirely the result of a strategic alliance between the Mughal military commanders and the banjara haulers of the north.’ ²⁹ Subsequently, due to military strategic and logistical significance, the banjaras were even incorporated into the Mughal polity through patronising them and granting subsidies regarding paying of taxes. They were even honoured by gifts of elephants, horses and robes of honour. The Ma’athir-al-Umara, an Indo-Persian text, praises the banjaras for their intrinsic role as commissariat to the Mughal military and the course of political engagement between the Mughal military commander Mahabat Khan and the banjaras as follows:

It is said that during the thirty or forty years many governors came to Deccan and returned as they experienced serious difficulties at Balaghat, and owing to the scarcity of corn even though there was no fighting. No one had been able to find a solution for this problem. The first arrangement that Mahabat Khan made during his tenure of the government (of the Deccan) was that he conciliated the Banjaras of India by presents of elephants, horses, and robes of honour, and won them over so completely that there was one head of the Banjaras at Agra and Gujarat and other in Balaghat. He ordered that whether corn was cheap or dear, they would supply it at the rate ten seers to the rupee. ³⁰

It is important to note that Mahabat Khan was engaged with many innovative works on administrative and military grounds while being as the Mughal governor of Deccan (1628–1629). He successfully brought together the banjaras from different regions of the Mughal territory, granted robes of honour and presented to incorporate their assistance for procurement of food and fodders to the Mughal army and distant provinces. He even obliged them with political and economic benefits to become the companions of the Mughal army. Apart from serving the Mughal commanders and army, the services of the banjaras were even used for the welfare of the civil population. Significantly, the alliance between Mahabat Khan and the banjaras worked in the favour of the Mughal state. They were instructed to bring grains and fodder from different regions of the country and expected to sell them at the prices fixed by the state in the territories of Deccan and Malwa. The banjaras carried grains and butter to the encampment of the imperial army and kept them well stocked so that the imperial army stationed in the barren areas/terrain did not experience any scarcity. ³¹

Farid Bhakkari, the author of Zakhirat-ul-Khawanin, was the diwan and amin of pargana. Bir located in the territory of Balaghat illustrates that the banjaras played a very critical role through providing their assistance to the imperial army. ³² He argues that the imperial army and animals were suffering with scarcity of food and fodders because of the plundering and banditry caused by the Deccanis. ³³ Simultaneously, the routes of transportation for commodities and other items to the imperial army were even hampered by them. Indeed, the engagement of Deccanis with such activities created a crisis of food and fodder procurement for the imperial militaries as well as the horses. But it was the banjaras who continuously supplied food, fodder and other essential commodities and items to the Mughal army from different parts of the Mughal terrain. ³⁴ The co-ordination and alliance between the states’ authority and the banjaras maintained the regular supply of grains to the imperial army. This encouraged the Mughal expansion into strongly fortified areas located far distant from the centre and surrounded by uncultivated terrain. Farid Bhakkari even mentions about the military engagement of Mahabat Khan in the context of Deccan and Malwa. According to him, Mahabat Khan formulated a separate wing of the army, especially for the procurement of grains under the leadership of Sujat Khan, who was assigned with the task of collecting grains from the banjaras of Bir and to bring them safely to the Parenda fort. ³⁵

The Indo-Persian sources acknowledge that the success of the Mughal military campaigns in the interior terrain of the South Asian sub-continent majorly depended on the readiness of the banjaras to supply the imperial army with grains, fodder and other essential commodities. Indeed, this professional group of transporters and grain carriers supplied the imperial army and crucially played a significant role during the Mughal sieges of frontier forts throughout the Mughal period. This became also possible because of the omnipresence of the banjara nomadic community throughout the South Asian sub-continent and their universal engagement with similar kind of professions as transporters of various commodities as well as the grain carriers. ³⁶ On the other hand, they even contributed in generating a surplus for the state on commercial front; the banjaras were engaged with purchasing of grains and other commodities in cash directly from the rural market or from the peasantry for supplying them to mercantile classes as well as to the imperial army. ³⁷ More importantly, this made feasible to the Indian peasantry to pay the agricultural revenue in cash. Apart from supporting the commercial exchange, the banjaras were also seen as factors of encouraging the credit system because of their principles on ‘engaged in great speculation on their own account’ in advance. ³⁸ Apart from this, the banjaras even played a significant role in the foreign trade. As the transporters and carriers, they maintained a continuous supply of commodities or export articles through collecting them from the regional traders/merchants/artisans and supplying them to the major export centres of the Mughal Empire. ³⁹ Apart from their dependence on caravan trading mechanism, the Indian merchants were also dependent upon the banjaras for supplying their stocks to distant places or export centres. Consequently, the failure of the banjaras for reaching to the destined centres at a fixed time was hampering the export activities as well as the export of the country had been affected adversely. The correspondence of the English Factory records mention that the foreign merchants were unable to purchase commodity for shipment from the respective Indian merchants because the banjaras failed to bring supply in due time for some reasons. ⁴⁰ Subsequently, the banjaras remained the universal means of supplying the commodities and other items in whatever they dealt. On the other hand, being as the transporters and carriers of grains and fodder they established a co-ordinated link between both military and civil populations.

Monserrate, who visited the court of Emperor Akbar, has illustrated that abundant of supplies of required goods, items and other commodities required for the imperial army of Akbar was fulfilled through the support of the banjaras. In return, Akbar had even encouraged the banjaras for joining them in the imperial camp on multiple grounds. He further acclaims that the banjaras were exempted from paying all kinds of tolls and taxes while moving and transporting within the Mughal terrain. ⁴¹ On behalf of patronage granted by the Mughals, they worked as the main supplier of grains, fodder and other commodities to the imperial camp. For the first time, the banjaras got associated with the Muslim imperial army during the reign of Sultan Sikandar Lodi, while his army was campaigning against the Dholpur in 1504. Then, they continuously worked for the imperial army and supplied grains and other required commodities during every campaign and almost remained associated with the authority throughout the ages. ⁴²

The Mughal military logistics depended upon the inclusion of the banjaras for supplying the required items for the military engagement, especially the grains, fodder and required commodities to the soldiers. They were included as an important part of the imperial camps, and the nayak or leaders of the banjaras were approached for the carefully planned military tours or campaigns, as well. The banjaras were even known for being enormously reliable and honest community engaged with the transportation of commodities and other items at the proper time without creating any disturbance or treachery. The Indo-Persian sources and Factory records mentioning that no instances of treachery and theft of goods were been recorded during whatever jobs entrusted to their care. They were even paid cash advances to ensure the supply to the imperial army because of their reputation for reliability and honesty. Indeed, during the military engagement, they were never attacked by the army of anyone engaged in military combat. ⁴³

It is important to note that the banjaras were given full protection against all the causalities during the war. It was instructed by the state that they should never be harmed by any means because of a dispute with the imperial army or even if they were associated with supplying of commodities and other items to the rival camp. ⁴⁴ All the officers and military commanders were instructed that whatever commodities they were carrying would never be taken free from them; they would be paid for the respective items and commodities at the market rates. ⁴⁵ On the other hand, the banjaras were also considered very important part to maintain the proper and sufficient system of supply and distribution. Indeed, it was the banjaras who rendered this essential service to the state as well as to merchants and the civil society. The banjaras worked in the capacity of ‘merchant-cum-transporters’ to play the critical role of an unofficial agency which saved the civil population and the imperial army from starvation, they also helped in stabilisation of prices related to consumed commodities and items through maintaining a continuous distribution and supply throughout the Mughal Empire. Consequently, the banjaras played a fundamental role on the commercial front to increase the volume of foreign trade, as well. Indeed, because of the banjaras, the local market got linked with cities which evolved into big markets where the Indian merchants were engaging with the foreign traders as well as with the big merchants who were engaged with foreign trade. This triangular relation between the banjaras, the Indian merchants and the foreign traders contributed to the economic growth, and agrarian mode of production got engaged and began following the market trends. The banjaras as ‘merchant-cum-transporters’ got engaged into purchasing of Indian commodities and items directly from the local market and then supplying them to distant markets in the cities and thereafter to the specific port. It is important to note that the banjaras provided an essential transporting link between the local market and the distant market as well as the Indian port. They even enjoyed a monopoly over such trading activities during the period of Mughal period, simultaneously.

The Tuzuk-i-Jahangiri, the Mughal chronicle, mentions that sometimes the banjaras used 100,000 bullocks for supplying the imperial army during emergencies for fulfilling the immediate demands on a larger scale. ⁴⁶ Apart from this, when Asif Khan, the wazir of Shahjahan, was accompanied with two groups of the banjara community during his campaign against the Deccanis in 1630. One group of the banjaras led by the nayak Bhagwan Das accompanied him with 52,000 bullocks, while on the other hand, two other chiefs, Bhangi and Jhangi supplied him the required items and commodities with 180,000 bullocks. They were granted permission to obtain grass and water from anywhere they wanted within the Mughal terrain in return of their service. Even the leaders of the banjaras came to the agreement with the Mughals that they would remain associated with the imperial army and fulfil all the immediate needs of the army, as well. The Hyderabad-Deccan copper-plate inscription, engraved during the Mughal period describes in detail about the close association and interdependence of the Mughals and the banjaras as the following:

Rajan ka Pani

Chhapar ka ghas

Din ka tin khun mu’af

aur jahan’ Asaf Jan ke ghore

wahan Bhangi Jhangi ka (ke) bail

The translation of the above passage is as, “The water of satisfaction, the grass of the hut: (three acts of violence causing) bloodshed (have) the pardon of religion. and whence ‘Asaf Jan’s cavalry is, there are the bullocks of Bhangi and Jhangi”. ⁴⁷

The Mughal terrain varied on geographical accounts from north to south and east to west. It was never self-sufficient and self-dependent regarding the availability of required commodities for the civil population. The Indian agrarian means of production and the emergence and development of local industry intrinsically played a significant role to maintain a proper balance between supply and demand. On the other hand, the proper transportation of goods and commodities maintained free and smooth flow and exchange of required commodities from one region to the other region. Indeed, the banjaras managed the transportation system magnificently and its role is immemorial to maintain the system of exchange very efficiently as the connective link of medieval system of demand and supply. As the travelling merchants, the banjaras maintained a balance between demand and supply through purchasing essential articles from places where they were in surplus and disposing them at places where they were in scarcity. ⁴⁸ Consequently, they managed supply of goods from the interior of the Mughal terrain to the destined place, to the city market for its circulation as well as procured them also to the sea-ports for shipment as the part of foreign trade. Simultaneously, the late coming of the banjaras even caused suffering of chronic shortages in the imperial army as well as the civil population. It is important to note that the banjaras as the professional class of transporters or merchants cum carriers, led by the nayak, were able to visit even the most remote and inaccessible areas, and supplied all the agricultural items and other required commodities such as grain, sugar, butter as well as saltpetre and so on, in the capacity of traders and sometimes also on behalf of somebody else who hired them. Besides working as the supplier for the civil population and merchants, they even worked for the state as commissariat to the imperial army on the battlefields. ⁴⁹ As the extension of trading is concerned, the Indian and foreign merchants secured monopoly over the procurement of various items and commodities in the medieval exchange system just because of the services provided by the banjaras. ⁵⁰ On the other hand, the banjaras also evolved as an indispensable part of the Mughal Military conquest and served as the commissariat for the Mughals from time to time.

It is important to note that both the Indo-Persian chronicles and the East India Company sources/records acknowledge the military success of the Mughals as well as the East India Company into the interior terrain of the Indian sub-continent. These gains were intrinsically dependent upon the readiness of the banjaras to work as the supplier to the army with grains, fodder and other requirements. Indeed, in context of the South Asian military conquest, the Mughal army further became more dependent over the banjaras due to their engagement and efficiency in the network of extensive transportation systems from the centre to the interior of the Indian sub-continent as well as from hinterland areas to the frontier zones. In return of their service for the state, the banjaras were granted to continue and enjoy their traditional right to graze the animal while travelling en-route. Apart from this, multiple favours were even extended to the banjaras to maintain the mutual and symbiotic relationship between the state and them. This phenomenon of co-existence was due to the economic and military significance of the transporting communities. The Mughals’ dependence on the banjaras for immediate supplies to the army was due to their owning of big caravans by them, which were consisted of as many as 20,000 oxen and were capable of transporting more than 1600–2700 t of grains and other items at a time. ⁵¹ The caravans of the banjaras were well equipped with all sorts of necessities to establish unbreakable supply chain to the imperial army.

The banjaras were engaged with trading of a number of commodities, but they were mainly the dealers of food grains. ⁵² The foreigner travel records mention that the banjaras were basically engaged in trading and transporting wheat, ⁵³ rice, ⁵⁴ millet, ⁵⁵ pulse ⁵⁶ and so on. Apart from this, the banjaras were even engaged with trading and transporting other commodities such as butter, sugar, sugar candy and salt. ⁵⁷ During the period of the seventeenth century, they also got indulged in transportation of saltpetre which was one of the important export articles from India. ⁵⁸ Simultaneously, the banjaras were also trading in saltpetre on the demand of the Mughal state as well as for the East India Company. Peter Mundy noted the banjara community as traders, who commonly carried their own goods mostly related to agricultural produce, but they also transported goods on a hire basis, especially on behalf of their owner, and worked as transporting agents for other merchants also. ⁵⁹ The service of the banjaras was even very crucial for the Mughal state, merchants and traders because their job of transportation was not restricted only to the particular seasons, they facilitated the state as well as the Mughal state even during the rainy season or also during adverse climatic. They transported the goods and commodities even when roads were muddy and carts and wagons were not available for supplying the goods, as well. ⁶⁰ The factory records mention that the banjaras were generally charging higher during the rainy seasons and adverse climatic conditions due to scarcity of the transportive means, they were using thousands of bullocks and oxen rather than the carts or wagons and were charging higher than the normal days. ⁶¹ However, the transportation cost charged by the banjaras during normal circumstances was cheaper and lower than the other modes of transportation. ⁶² The transportation offered by the banjaras was cheaper and lower on long-distance land-route was due to two facts: first, they moved while grazing their animal along the route wherever they selected and they were not charged to pay the gazing tax also, on the other hand, they spent almost nothing or very insignificant expenses on fodder for their oxen and bullocks; second, someone from their caravans could derive 30–40 bullocks before them at a time. ⁶³ The banjaras transported goods and commodities on hire basis as well as on individual ground also. In the context of hiring basis, the owner of the merchandise was solely responsible for arranging everything for the safety and security of goods during the journey till it reached the destined places, markets and ports. On the other hand, the owner had to also pay all dues associated to transportation, while, in the second case, all responsibility regarding safe delivery of the goods was totally granted by the banjaras. ⁶⁴ As the cost of transportation is concerned, both methods of transportation were comparatively cheaper and lower than the other modes of transportation. This is why the state as well as the merchants intrinsically depended on the service of the banjaras.

The English Factories record discusses in more detail about the dependency of the Company merchants on the banjaras. During the reign of the Mughal emperor Shahjahan, in 1656 AD, the English merchants came to an agreement with the Deccani banjaras regarding the transportation of saltpetre from Agra to the port of Surat, since the banjaras were following the long-distance route from Agra to Surat via Burhanpur. The English factors were hesitating to dispatch their goods via Burhanpur, because they were afraid of Prince Aurangzeb, who had camped at Burhanpur against Golcunda and was in need of saltpetre for manufacturing gunpowder to assist his army. The English factors were afraid of that their goods might be seized by Prince Aurangzeb, but the banjaras offered service on their own behalf and granted for safe delivery of saltpetre to Surat. According to the contract, the banjaras took responsibility upon themselves for the safety of the goods against any robbery or seize and travelled throughout the territory of Burhanpur without any assistance of the English factors. They even paid all rahdari dues by themselves and delivered them safely to Surat according to the contract. ⁶⁵ It is important to note that the banjaras were not disturbed by Aurangzeb or even by any of his military officers just because of their dependency on the banjaras as the commissariat to the Mughal army. Consequently, the Mughal state had also assured them for the safety and security of their business because of their significant contribution to the Mughals.

Along with supplying the civil population and merchants, the banjaras were the main supplier even for the imperial army through the ages. As the commissariat, they transported for the armies and kept them well supplied. ⁶⁶ More importantly, during the campaigns, they were even supplying to the rival army, but they were never harmed by any of the conflicting parties due to their dependence upon them for the regular and continuous procurement of required items and other necessities. ⁶⁷ The Indo-Persian sources mention that the banjaras had regularly procured provisions to the Imperial army and accompanied them during the combat times. Indeed, the rulers and military commanders always showed their concern towards the banjaras and even forced them to utilise their services during the campaigns. The Mirat-i-Sikandari, the Indo-Persian source, mentions that during the campaign against Bahadur Shah of Gujarat, Humayun consulted and forced the banjaras to supply the grains to his camp, which was supplied by them to the camp of the Bahadur Shah. ⁶⁸ Simultaneously, Sher Shah Suri also controlled over the services of the banjaras during his campaign against the Mughal emperor Humayun, who were supplying all kind of corns and grains to the imperial camp with loaded bullocks. ⁶⁹ This was done because the service of the banjaras related to the army was far more effective and adding sustainability to the army for longer period even during military emergency. This is why the rulers sometimes tried to overturn the opportunities in their own favour through creating obstacles by controlling and seizing the supply and service of the banjaras. Apart from this, such initiatives even enabled the rulers to solve the issues associated with resource-related crisis, which could have led them to serious endangered conditions while their military engagement against their counterparts. Simultaneously, the regular procurement of grains and other commodities to the army was even attached with the military reputation to both parties.

Another reason for causing scarcity to the imperial army was the late arrival of the banjaras, since the banjaras had opted for self-discovered routes to cover long-distance. Indeed, the effect of weather, terrain and road conditions had also impacted their speed of transportation. In most cases, the banjaras were often afraid of robbery or banditry, to avoid such inconvenient circumstances they were in a habit to change their routes repeatedly, which had increased the time period for delivering the grains and other commodities to the destined battlefield, and caused scarcity to the army. Abdul Qadir Badauni mentioned that during the siege of Kokandah, in 1576 AD, located in subah Ajmer, the imperial army had to suffer a great scarcity of supplies because of non-arrival of the banjaras. ⁷⁰ The significance of the banjaras has been discussed in detail by the Mughal emperor Jahangir while recording them in his Tuzuk as the commissariat. He praised the coordinative role between the Mughal military commanders and the banjaras, which agreed with the banjaras to accompany the imperial army to the Mughal campaign of Qandahar. Simultaneously, in return of their service and saving the imperial army from facing scarcity, the banjaras were paid in advance. ⁷¹ Consequently, in 1630 AD, the Mughal emperor Shahjahan could also continue his prosecute/campaign against Deccan because of the continuous supply of provisions to the imperial army supplied by the banjaras. ⁷²

A large unit of the banjaras worked for the Mughal military contingents. Apparently, on the instruction of the state, the banjaras echoed on both the fronts, on the one hand, they helped in conquest policy of continuous incorporation of territories into the Mughal state through distributing supplies to the imperial army, while on the other hand, they even contributed to generating economic resources through maintaining the chain of demand and supply. The Mughals managed good relations with the banjaras to save their military campaign from the risk of failures due to the late and non-arrival of essential provisions. All the essential provisions were always present just because of the best-managed relations with the banjaras. Sadiq Khan mentioned that the banjaras were deeply associated with the Mughal military campaigns. The Mughal emperor Shahjahan was convinced of the role of the banjaras as supplier of provisions to the imperial army, and even made an agreement with them that they would be in contact of the state and would supply grains and other provisions to the army encampment at a fixed rate by the state. In return of their service, they would be granted multiple subsidies, and their right of monopoly as the transporters would be protected. Sadiq Khan further argued, in 1653, the banjaras were instructed by the Mughal emperor Shahjahan to march to Qandahar along with the army of Prince Dara to facilitate a continuous supply of provisions. ⁷³ The banjaras also maintained their promise with the Mughal ruler and kept the imperial army of Dara well supplied.

There are plentiful references in the Indo-Persian sources on the banjaras which mention them as the supplier and transporters of grains and other provisions. ⁷⁴ They remained very professional transporters for the monarch. The Indo-Persian sources refer that such demands were not done by force requisitions, or even by raiding over the civilian sources of grains, while it was managed through orderly purchases which were often arranged by the residents of provinces closest to the prospective combat zone. Such techniques were adopted for protecting the armies from vulnerability due to scarcity of grains and fodders. William Irvine even suggested that a proper bazaar (camp market) was adjusted within the area of an army encampment, where residents of the closest provinces along with merchants were reaching to sell their stored provisions to the army. ⁷⁵ Abul Fazl mentioned that it was the clear instruction of the state that local residents would not be disturbed and the army would not indulge into any activity of forceful requisitions by raiding civilian sources of the grains. It was the responsibility of the mir-manzils to arrange the provisions related to grains and fodder along with the selection of the place for the army encampment. ⁷⁶ At the end of every four corners of the army camp, a bazaar was established, where the residents from the neighbouring provinces reached with their provisions. It is significant the Mughal army relied most seriously on local resources, not only for the supply of the combatant’s provisions (grains, pulses, wheat and other commodities), but also for the requirement of the military animal’s ration. The Mughals even appreciated that peaceful relations should be established between the army men and the residents. The coordinated and cooperative relations with the Indian subjects/raiyats was encouraged due to the dependency of the Mughal economy upon the Agrarian mode of production, where peasantry and local residents were significant for the state.

It is important to note that supply of the essential commodities and food grains for the urban consumption was a significant feature of the early modern life in India. The movement of large armies in the plains and difficult terrains has to be kept well supplied. The procurement of the essential items from the producers for the onwards supply has to be maintained by the Mughal state and the contemporary merchants. The banjaras were the communities who possessed huge livestock and which were often used at the behest of the Mughal ruler for maintaining the balance between demand and supply. Simultaneously, the banjaras remained at the centre stage to play an important role as a carrier or transporter for the Mughal state as well as the civil population and merchants. Apart from this, in many cases of the Mughal military conquest, the expedition was delayed for making better arrangement for defence purpose. However, similar possibilities were included within the logistics of siege warfare or siege operations. In the context of Deccan military campaign, Jai Singh wrote to the Mughal emperor Alamgir Aurangzeb regarding the delay in the start of the military campaign and was leading to exhaust the Mughal army; on the other hand, grains and other commodities were also ending, and he was afraid of facing the scarcity of the provisions required for the Mughal army. ⁷⁷ Indeed, without the regular procurement of grain and other commodities, and whatever the items were stored was insufficient for continuation of further expedition. Simultaneously, there was also a lack of co-operation among the associates too. The Mughal army was in dire need of food provisions, and Jai Singh with the help of Safshikan Khan consulted with many groups of the banjaras to bring grains and other essential commodities to the Imperial camp. ⁷⁸ Furthermore, when food provisions were arranged, the respective qiladar failed to provide any security arrangement and was plundered by troops of Bijapuris under the command of Sharza Mehdi. ⁷⁹

Similar references regarding facing the scarcity by the imperial army were noted by the Mughal news writer (waqa’i-navis) in 1680 reported from subah Ajmer. They mentioned that the banjaras had not brought provisions because of fear of rebels. They suggested that the situation would become very critical if the banjaras delayed the supply for one or two weeks. ⁸⁰ Simultaneously, during the Assam campaign, the army of the Mughal emperor Alamgir Aurangzeb faced scarcity of grains and other commodities because the banjaras did not supply the required provisions at the time due to flood and excessive rain in the terrain of Assam. ⁸¹ Consequently, the imperial army became in the grip of severe famine just because the banjaras were not able to supply provisions due to natural calamities. To save the imperial army from any adversities because of lack of provisions, the state had always retained a surplus of stocks, but for its effective use, the Mughals were dependent upon the supply system of the banjaras. Apart from this, the military commanders and neighbouring provincial administrators were also instructed to co-operate with the supply demand. ⁸² The Mughals took extra care into the administrative details of organising pre-campaign supply and making suitable arrangement of the supply of surplus through organising the camp-bazaar, as well. ⁸³ More importantly, the faujdar were instructed to look after the banjaras were neither robbed nor charged with any illegal extractions, while they were moving with provisions to supply them to the army camp or to the cities. ⁸⁴ The importance of the banjaras owing to their role in shaping the course of the Mughal military conquest during the sixteenth and seventeenth century had been recognised by the state from time to time by granting them royal honours and awards.

Conclusion

The Mughal army and war animals were protected from the worst effects due to lack of foodstuffs and fodders during the military campaigns by the provision of guaranteed source of supply through the assistance of the banjaras. According to the Indo-Persian sources and the Company records, a larger quantity of grains, corns and fodders were supplied by the banjaras to the army camp for feeding the Mughal army and war animals. The contributions of the banjaras as the commissariat were intrinsically important because of their expertise in transporting commodities even during unfavourable and difficult circumstances. The role of the banjaras also added value by reducing prices of the required commodities and helped in saving extra expenditure of the state for the management of foodstuffs, and the army did not depend for alternative modes for food supplies. Consequently, because of the banjaras, the food reserves remained secure throughout the Mughal military campaigns and provided psychological comfort to the Mughal military commanders as well as the soldiers.