Cross-cultural bridging and integration of Chinese and Western elements among undergraduate general education programmes and courses in Hong Kong

Abstract

One of the major challenges confronting Chinese universities when actualising Western General Education is how to come up with culturally relevant models for localising Western General Education with Chinese characteristics. Based on the document analysis and inductive thematic analysis of the General Education programmes and courses among the eight publicly funded universities in Hong Kong, there are eight common strategies adopted by them when embracing, bridging, and integrating both the Chinese and Western features into the aims, content, and approaches of their respective General Education programmes and courses, which include connecting traditional Chinese knowledge with contemporary lens, undergoing cross-cultural dialogues with influential figures, conducting comparisons among diverse cultures, traditions, and societies, highlighting the global implications of Chinese cultures, proposing alternative discourses for the world knowledge system, exploring cultures through real-life encounters and engagement, offering discussion space for the exchange of ideas and perspectives, as well as learning to become a true human person. All these eight strategies serve as guidance for teachers in designing and delivering cross-cultural learning and teaching content and activities for their students.

Introduction

Over the years, Hong Kong has been serving as a “third space” where Chinese and Western cultures intersect and influence each other (Lo, 2023). Hong Kong plays a unique role in shaping a global vision of higher education due to its distinct position between China and the West (Postiglione, 2013). The region’s long-standing exposure to international cultures has enriched its global perspectives through the assimilation of Western knowledge and close collaborations with Western institutions. Additionally, Hong Kong functions as a gateway to China and a hub for China studies, especially by leveraging its extensive social, economic, geographic, and cultural ties with China, as well as building on its deep understanding of Chinese cultures and traditions (Ng, 2011). However, simplistic dichotomies persist among individuals when discussing the influences of Chinese and Western cultures and traditions on the policies, practices, and discourses within Hong Kong’s education system (Forestier & Crossley, 2015). Hong Kong universities have strategically adopted internationalist discourses and neo-liberal competition models from Western counterparts, while also aligning with a state agenda for national integration and global engagement (Pan, 2021). Nonetheless, these universities grapple with the challenge of striking a balance between embracing their Chinese identity and maintaining a global outlook (Lo et al., 2022).

To provide a deeper context to the interplay between China and the West within Hong Kong’s education system, one can examine the introduction of General Education (GE), which is a broad-based core curriculum in the educational reform of the eight Hong Kong’s publicly funded universities. GE reflects a blend of Western higher education trends, and serves as a link between Hong Kong’s education system and the Chinese educational framework (Jaffee, 2012). Rooted in the liberal education tradition originating from the United States, GE has been introduced to East Asian settings, including Hong Kong, which highlight a fusion of Chinese and Western educational philosophies (Shi et al., 2024). The incorporation of GE within the eight Hong Kong’s publicly funded universities requires a nuanced analysis within the distinctive context of the region, which is characterised by a hybridised and intricate environment where Chinese and Western influences converge (Lam, 2023). The provision of GE is influenced by and responds to the rules, beliefs, cultures, histories, and conventions embedded in the broader contextual milieu, which are all shaping the unique GE’s structures, content, and approaches across different countries and regions around the world (Huang, 2017). To these ends, this qualitative study aims to address the following research question: How do the eight Hong Kong’s publicly funded universities bridge and integrate both Chinese and Western features into the aims, content, and approaches of their respective GE programmes and courses?

This article is structured as follows. It begins by reviewing the relevant literature on the hybridity of Chinese and Western influences in Hong Kong’s education system, and the introduction of GE in the eight Hong Kong’s publicly funded universities. It then identifies the research gaps, and discusses the contributions of the study in terms of both academic scholarship and practical implications. It moves on by introducing cultural hybridisation as the theoretical framework, and outlines the qualitative research method, which involves document analysis and inductive thematic analysis. Followed by these, it presents the research findings by discussing the eight strategies employed by the eight Hong Kong’s publicly funded universities when embracing, bridging, and integrating both Chinese and Western features into the aims, content, and approaches of their respective GE programmes and courses. It concludes by summarising the key findings emerging from this study, discussing the research limitations, and suggesting directions for future research in this area.

Literature review

Hybridity of the Chinese and the West in Hong Kong’s education system

As a predominantly Chinese society, Hong Kong’s education system is deeply rooted in Confucian histories, traditions, worldviews, institutions, values, and ways of life (Ho, 2009). Meanwhile, the system has been significantly influenced by British models and practices, which is evident from the 155 years of British governance that interwove many Western features into Hong Kong’s social, economic, and political institutions (Ding et al., 2008). For instance, in the educational arena, Hong Kong’s education system has been preserving the fundamental elements of traditional Chinese education, such as subject-centric approaches and summative tests, while absorbing the most advanced concepts, theories, and experiences from modern Western education, such as student-centred and inquiry-based instruction (Education Commission, 2000). Local policymakers in Hong Kong have not only adopted educational ideologies from the United Kingdom, but also drawn inspiration and knowledge from educational policies, programmes, and initiatives in countries like the United States, Australia, and Canada (Dan & Tang, 2018). Over the past two decades, following the government’s launch of the learning-to-learn educational reform across the region, Hong Kong’s education system has been immersing in a series of policy referencing and adaptation exercises on a global scale. These diverse initiatives include examining and adopting policies and practices from other high-performing education systems worldwide, implementing monitoring and benchmarking mechanisms for international recognition, and engaging with local and overseas educational expertise (Forestier, Adamson, & Morris, 2016).

A critical issue that arises during Hong Kong’s educational reform efforts is the necessity for philosophies, theories, ideas, and strategies borrowed from the West to align with and be supported by traditional Chinese beliefs and norms to attain success (Tan, 2018). This underscores the importance for Hong Kong to strategically blend elements from both distinct civilisations and heritages in a manner that is beneficial to both China and the West. By embracing values inherent in its Chinese heritage, Hong Kong can showcase how these values positively impact global education. At the same time, given its colonial past that heavily integrated Western values when compared to many other East Asian societies, Hong Kong can explore how principles from the Western enlightenment tradition can enhance educational excellence in the region (Hayhoe, 2001). The fusion of cultures is paramount for Hong Kong’s education system to enable students to benefit from the best parts of both Chinese and Western traditions (Cheng, 2010). Moreover, this approach helps prevent the emergence of an educational reform syndrome, which means that reforms often overlook their cultural and contextual circumstances when designing and implementing reforms (Cheng, 2009). Furthermore, amidst the trends of internationalisation and globalisation, this integration can counteract the Western dominance of knowledge perpetuated through one-way educational exchanges that neglect Chinese knowledge systems (Howe & Xu, 2013). After all, Hong Kong, as a unique case study site for this qualitative study, has the potential of illustrating how the dominant educational influences of the Western world can be effectively integrated within a Chinese framework (Hayhoe, 2012).

Introduction of general education among the publicly funded Universities in Hong Kong

The integration of GE into undergraduate programmes stands as a pivotal element of Hong Kong’s 3 + 3 + 4 New Academic Structure, which was officially introduced by the government in 2009. This initiative aims to enhance educational accessibility by transitioning from a highly selective system to a more inclusive and equitable framework, which involves substantial reforms in both senior secondary and higher education (Lam, 2010). Under this structure, all undergraduate students in Hong Kong’s eight publicly funded universities now follow a four-year curriculum structure instead of the previous three-year structure. During this additional year, students will engage in a broadening GE component that complements their specialised disciplines or professions (Jaffee, 2012). The design of Hong Kong’s GE curriculum emphasises a balanced approach to whole-person education, which involves integrating Chinese humanistic ideals with Western liberal arts content. It provides students with a comprehensive intellectual perspective and cultivates a fundamental understanding of diverse academic disciplines’ values (University Grant Committee, 2005). Hong Kong’s publicly funded universities are also encouraged to develop GE programmes that incorporate both Chinese and Western perspectives, experiences, sources, and cultural foundations (University Grant Committee, 2010). Consequently, the implementation of GE across the eight Hong Kong’s publicly funded universities exemplifies the hybrid nature of Chinese and Western influences within the local education system. Most importantly, each of these universities has the autonomy and flexibility to design its own GE programme and courses based on its unique mission, vision, history, culture, educational goals, objectives, and strategic plans. This approach results in shared characteristics and significant diversity among GE programmes and courses across all universities (Jaffee, 2013).

Over the past two decades, GE has been adopted, modified, and integrated in diverse ways across the eight Hong Kong’s publicly funded universities (Lam, 2023). However, concerns have persisted regarding the intricate and sometimes conflicting cultural dynamics at play, which hinder the successful introduction of GE in the context of Hong Kong’s publicly funded universities. Firstly, Hong Kong lacks a historical foundation in the Western-centric concept of GE, which primarily originated in the United States (Huang, 2017). Additionally, Hong Kong has traditionally followed the British educational model, which prioritises the development of students’ specialised disciplines or professions for their future endeavours (Lanford, 2016). Furthermore, Hong Kong universities recognise the importance of contextualising their GE programmes and courses by leveraging their unique strengths and addressing their specific needs (Jaffee, 2012). As a result, Hong Kong has been shaping its distinctive GE model by navigating both the global and local dimensions. A persistent challenge in introducing GE lies in adapting it to suit the specific Chinese context and culture. Addressing this challenge involves exploring culturally relevant models for localising GE with Chinese characteristics, which needs to span across curriculum design, pedagogical approaches, and assessment methods that will be investigated in this study (Shi et al., 2024). After all, by examining and adapting GE to align with the Chinese context as the major foci of this study, Hong Kong aims to develop an educational framework that resonates with its cultural heritage while meeting the demands of a globalised world.

Research gaps and contributions

The introduction of GE in the eight Hong Kong’s publicly funded universities presents a cultural experiment within contemporary contexts characterised by tensions and paradoxes (Yang, 2023b). Meanwhile, it reveals the debate of problematising and transcending the dichotomisation of China and the West, which hinders individuals and institutions with varying cultures and practices to adapt, learn, and innovate from and with one another (Tang & Zhang, 2023). Teachers often encounter challenges in teaching culture due to varying contents and approaches, which leads to difficulties stemming from a lack of frameworks, strategies, and resources (Guenier & Min, 2022). Meanwhile, conflicts may arise when attempting to transplant widely accepted ideas and models from one cultural context to another, as no culture can be universally applicable (Yang & Li, 2022). Within the realm of GE scholarship, ongoing discussions emphasise the importance of integrating traditional values from Western liberal arts education and traditional Chinese cultures. This integration involves considering the reciprocal and evolving relationships between these cultural paradigms and the fundamental essence of GE in undergraduate education (Ng, 2016). Scholars advocate for a correlative thinking mindset that emphasises complementarity and interconnectedness among cultures often viewed as antagonistic (Tan, 2018). There is also a growing call in the GE’s scholarship to examine the process and substance of GE as an educational innovation across diverse local contexts. This involves exploring how various GE experiments and models adapt to local contexts, especially in terms of encompassing unique cultural traditions and values. It is crucial to move beyond blindly replicating global models, and instead focus on tailoring GE initiatives to suit local conditions that reflect the expansion and variability of educational practices (Mou, 2021). By embracing these perspectives, Hong Kong’s GE programmes and courses can evolve to better align with the cultural intricacies of the region, while fostering meaningful educational experiences for students.

This study makes a significant theoretical and practical contribution to the discourse on bridging Chinese and Western perspectives in the realm of international and comparative education. Theoretically speaking, this study aims to address key issues like countering Western knowledge dominance, Eurocentric education, neo-colonialism, as well as neoliberal and conservative agendas (Howe & Xu, 2013). By exploring the development and promotion of indigenous Ge models as social constructs with a hegemonic Western university development framework in contemporary Chinese society, the study sheds light on crucial aspects of educational evolution (Yang, 2019). This study also aims to shed light on the contemporary Chinese society’s endeavour to develop and promote indigenous GE models as social constructs within a hegemonic Western university development framework (Yang, 2019). This study underscores the importance of specifying the hybridisation occurring in Hong Kong’s GE context among the eight publicly funded universities as variants of Chineseness, which can offer a valuable reference point for development and globalisation processes in other Chinese societies (Lo, 2020). By revealing how mutual learning between China and the West can cultivate educated individuals who contribute to a common world characterised by equality, justice, wisdom-seeking, and virtue-cultivation, this study also emphasises the broader goals of offering students a more quality undergraduate education (Lin, 2013). Practically speaking, by elucidating the strategies employed by the eight Hong Kong’s publicly funded universities to bridge and integrate Chinese values, forms, and practices into the prevailing Western educational framework dominating university education, this study paves the way for further evolution, adaptation, and innovation of hybrid GE programmes across structural, curricular, instructional, and evaluative dimensions (Hawkins, 2013). By leveraging Hong Kong’s rich experience and models in actualising GE, this research offers valuable insights for policymakers, administrators, and educators around the world. It encourages the embracement of openness and flexibility by blending and drawing from the diverse cultural traditions of China and the West in programmes and courses when adjusting educational visions, modifying teaching goals, enriching curriculum content, and strengthening professional teacher development programmes (Jiang, 2023).

Theoretical framework

The scholarship surrounding contemporary university systems and institutions in East Asia, which reflect a fusion of Eastern and Western influences, often incorporates the concept of “hybridity” (Lo, 2023). These East Asian universities are currently experiencing a process of hybridisation of cultural elements, which shapes their evolution within the global landscape. Each university interprets hybridity differently based on its unique institutional context, culture, and traditions (Lo, 2016). In line with existing scholarship, this study adopts the notion of “cultural hybridity” as the overarching theoretical framework, which illustrates the dynamic and interconnected process of adapting and integrating diverse cultures to achieve mutual understanding without diminishing the significance of either culture involved (Hernández Paz et al., 2022). More specifically, this study leverages Kwok-Bun and Peverelli (2010)’s framework, which outlines five pathways to elucidate how culture from one origin (Origin B) can intersect and engage with another culture from a different origin (Origin A). This study will apply this framework within the context of understanding the interplay between Chinese and Western cultures within the GE programmes and courses offered by the eight Hong Kong’s publicly funded universities. This process emphasises not only increased interaction with Western values but also a profound consideration of traditional Chinese values, institutions, and practices (Chan et al., 2017). By exploring the integration of these cultural elements within Hong Kong’s eight publicly funded universities’ GE programmes and courses, this study contributes to a deeper understanding of the complexities of cultural hybridisation, and its implications on East Asian university education. The five pathways outlined by Kwok-Bun and Peverelli (2010) are as follows:

(1) Essentialising (A<—>B = A/B): This essentialising emerges when both cultures essentialise and solidify upon encountering differences, which lead to a retreat to their respective unchanging identities. This may reinforce fixed cultural boundaries, and result in a simplistic and stereotypical representation of each culture, which ultimately lack any nuanced understanding of both cultures involved.

(2) Alternating (A<—>B = A + B): This alternating pathway involves internalising culture A while maintaining a separate coexistence with culture B. Both cultures remain compartmentalised and distinct without effective integration or interaction, which limit a deeper understanding of their intersections and differences.

(3) Converting (A<—>B = B): This converting pathway entails the replacement or displacement of culture A by culture B, which results in the loss or negation of one culture by the other. Such a shift may lead to a dominant cultural narrative that diminishes the diversity and inclusivity of the cross-cultural experience.

(4) Hybridising (A<—>B = AB or Ab or Ba): This hybridising pathway involves a balanced and harmonious blending of cultures from different origins. The significance attached to each culture may vary, but both are eventually valued and contribute to a diverse, integrated, and enriched cross-cultural experience.

(5) Innovating (A<—>B = AB or Ab or Ba—>C): This pathway happens when various cultures undergo entanglement and collision, which result in the emergence of new and innovative products, ideas, and expressions. This dynamic process signifies an evolving educational environment that transcends traditional cultural boundaries and constraints, which can ultimately foster creativity and novelty.

Research method

Data collection

This study examined all relevant online webpages of GE programmes and courses across the eight Hong Kong’s publicly funded universities, which include (1) University of Hong Kong (HKU), (2) Chinese University of Hong Kong (CUHK), (3) Hong Kong University of Science and Technology (HKUST), (4) Hong Kong Polytechnic University (PolyU), (5) City University of Hong Kong (CityU), (6) Hong Kong Baptist University (HKBU), (7) Lingnan University (LN/LU), and (8) Education University of Hong Kong (EdUHK). The information gathered from these university websites varied, which include programme goals and objectives, programme structure and arrangement, course catalogue, and course syllabi. Consequently, this study involved a qualitative document analysis to explore the specific strategies employed by these universities when embracing, bridging, and integrating both Chinese and Western features when conceptualising and enacting the aims, content, and approaches of their respective GE programmes and courses.

Document analysis is a systematic and rigorous method for reviewing and evaluating electronic documents, which enables researchers to derive meaning, develop understanding, and generate empirical knowledge on the subject matter (Bowen, 2009). Through this approach, researchers can extract data in the form of excerpts, quotations, or entire sections, which can subsequently be categorised into major themes, categories, and case examples (Labuschagne, 2003). The data collected in this study meet the four essential criteria for selecting documents for analysis as outlined by Kridel (2015). First, these documents are authentic and genuine, which serve as official information provided by the universities in terms of describing their GE programmes and courses. Moreover, they are credible and error-free as they are written and presented by reputable academic institutions and instructors. Furthermore, they are representative and typical as they constitute essential information that made available to prospective students for course selection as well as the general public for wider accountability. Lastly, they are significant and valuable, which can offer insights into how these universities integrate Chinese and Western elements at the curriculum level.

Data analysis

This study employed inductive thematic analysis following a systematic and rigorous data coding procedure (Nowell et al., 2017). With reference to Mirhosseini (2020), the process involved the four stages of initial, focused, axial, and theoretical coding. The analysis began with initial coding, which involved open reading of the collected data to generate provisional codes related to small aspects of the research question. Several rounds of initial coding were conducted until new rounds contributed minimally to the list of provisional codes. This process created a foundation for the subsequent focused coding, which involved identifying connections, similarities, and repetitions among the initial codes to derive a condensed set of focused codes that offered more comprehensive insights into the research question. This study ensured that all codes remained closely tied to the data. Building upon the focused codes, this study proceeded to axial coding, which involved relating categories to sub-categories, as well as specify the properties and dimensions of each category in relation to the research question. Minor categories with shared features were combined to form major categories, which can facilitate a conceptual understanding of various aspects of the research question. The axial codes were interconnected to present a coherent and holistic view of the data on a conceptual level. The data analysis was ended with theoretical coding, which involved synthesising all codes to develop a contextualised and holistic understanding based on the research question. This involved conceptualising the relationships among substantive codes and advancing the analytical narrative in a theoretical direction. Once key themes were identified and finalised, relevant evidence and quotations were selected from each grouping to exemplify and elucidate each theme effectively (Miles & Huberman, 1994).

To ensure the trustworthiness of this qualitative research study, this study adopted several measures to assess the quality of the data. First, this study utilised a code-recode procedure, which involved coding segments of the data and then revisiting the same data after a few weeks for comparison, which helped ensure consistency in the coding process (Saldaña, 2021). Moreover, thematic saturation was achieved during the data analysis phase, indicating that when repetitive codes and themes were identified and no new information or relationships emerged, which ensured that the depth, richness, and complexity of the data were adequately captured in the study (Rahimi & Khatooni, 2024). Furthermore, this study provided thick descriptions by engaging extensively with the research context and themes, and collecting data from diverse sources, which facilitated a comprehensive understanding of the phenomena under study by illuminating various facets of the topic (Hussein, 2009). Lastly, this study maintained short reflective notes throughout the research process to monitor potential biases and make timely adjustments, particularly when he deeply involved in and familiar with the research theme, which could allow him to undergo critical self-assessment, and to ensure the integrity and rigour of the study (Palaganas et al., 2017).

Research findings

Based on the inductive thematic analysis, this study has identified eight strategies employed by the eight Hong Kong’s publicly funded universities as they bridge and integrate both Chinese and Western features into the aims, content, and approaches of their respective General Education programmes and courses, which will be discussed as follows:

Connecting traditional Chinese knowledge with contemporary lens

At the curriculum level, EdUHK recently revamped their GE breadth courses by introducing the New Six Arts courses. These courses aim to enhance students’ understanding and appreciation of Chinese history and culture, while equipping them with essential life skills and values to address contemporary societal needs. The Six Arts draw their historical roots from ancient Chinese education, which focus on rites, music, archery, charioteering, literacy, and numeracy. These domains aim to foster holistic human development in morality, arts, sports, humanities, and science, which can nurture individuals’ character and capabilities. For example, within the domain of music, courses like GEN1004: Musicking with Chineseness by Art Tech and GEN1005: Exploring the Creative Potential of Music, Technology, and Chinese Tradition enable students to delve into the historical and cultural significance of Chinese music. Students not only learn about Chinese music, but also actively engage in creating and evolving music that merges tradition with innovation. Similarly, in the literature domain, courses like GEN2001: Wisdom of Characters and Chinese Culture , GEN1002: Chinese Calligraphy , and GEN1003: Experiencing Chinese Characters through Animation encourage students to reconsider the role of characters in contemporary contexts and appreciate the enduring influence of Chinese language and culture. At the course level, HKU offers a range of GE courses that emphasise balancing tradition and innovation within the Chinese context. For example, courses like CCCH9001: Chinese House and Garden: Architecture, Landscape, and Material Culture explore how traditional buildings and landscapes interact with cultural values and physical forms in the modern era, CCCH9032: Sports and Chinese Society analyses Chinese attitudes towards traditional and modern sports in the context of national politics and elite influence, CCCH9051: Digitising Cultural Heritage in Greater China leverages digital technologies to promote local and Chinese cultural heritage globally, as well as CCCH9052: Arts, Science, and Artifacts in Chinese Cultural Heritage delves into assessing and understanding Chinese cultural heritage through scientific testing and quantification methods. All these GE courses engage in a continual process of evaluating what is fundamental and relevant, as well as adapting or discarding elements as needed. This approach enables teachers and students to connect traditional Chinese culture with the contemporary spirit of the modern age.

By linking traditional Chinese culture with contemporary modern lifestyles in the GE course content, students can develop a profound appreciation for the rich heritage and wisdom embedded within traditional Chinese knowledge systems. This approach enables students to grasp the historical significance and unique insights that traditional Chinese culture offers to their everyday lives. Traditional Chinese traditions and cultures are not static or outdated, instead they continuously evolve and rejuvenate through innovation and adaptation (Shen et al., 2024). The primary pedagogical objective is to help students deepen their connection with and understanding of Chinese cultural traditions by contextualising them within modern life across their GE courses (Tianfan, 2019). By modifying the superficial aspects of cultural elements while preserving their fundamental traditional roots, this strategy upholds ancient wisdom and experiences by fostering a mutually beneficial relationship between tradition and innovation, where each aspect complements and strengthens the other (Korneiko et al., 2023). This strategy also ensures that traditional culture is not misinterpreted or dismantled, but respected for its distinctive characteristics and traditions (Yuecheng, 2023). The wide range of Chinese cultures and traditions serve as a testament to the rich history of the Chinese nation, which embody distinct national traits that are passed down through generations (Ding et al., 2020). As students engage cognitively and emotionally with their nation and the world through their GE courses, they can inherit and transmit the national cultural heritage to future generations while celebrating and advocating for cultural diversity (Law, 2013). This approach ensures a holistic and inclusive educational experience that fosters an enduring connection to Chinese cultural traditions while embracing the dynamism of modernity.

Undergoing cross-cultural dialogues with influential figures

One of the most illustrative examples can be found at CUHK, where students are required to enroll in two GE foundation courses, namely UGFH1000: In Dialogue with Humanity and UGFN1000: In Dialogue with Nature . Both courses provide students with the opportunity to engage with excerpts from a diverse selection of influential classics authored by literary figures, philosophers, educators, anthropologists, theologians, scientists, and social reformers spanning various generations from both Eastern and Western traditions. The former course delves into the exploration of what constitutes a fulfilling life for an individual and a harmonious society for all, as well as the mechanisms through which individuals and societies can strive towards achieving such ideals. The latter course prompts reflection on human comprehension of science, technology, and the natural world, examining humanity’s place within these domains. Similar courses exist in other universities, which are offered as elective options for students to select from a diverse array of courses. For instance, HKU offers the course CCCH9058: Talking About Politics: Chinese Debates in Political Thinking, Past and Present , which engages students in dialogues between prominent Chinese and Western thinkers from history to contemplate contemporary social and political issues such as freedom, harmony, the ethics of warfare, ritual propriety, law, and musical arts, and social welfare. HKUST provides the course HUMA 1001: Foundational Texts in the Humanities , where students engage in close reading, detailed explication, and analytical writing on a series of foundational texts in Chinese and Western humanities. PolyU offers the course CHC2CM42: Practical Dreamers in Chinese History , which introduces students to Chinese emperors, statesmen, philosopher-teachers, scholar-officials, and revolutionaries renowned for their visions and aspirations, and students will compare and evaluate these figures with similar counterparts in their own cultural or national histories to discern the qualities that define greatness and its constituents. All these GE courses involve listening, reading, discussion, and writing as the learning and teaching activities throughout the semester, which enable students to contemplate the viewpoints and arguments presented in these texts and consider their relevance to the modern world. By engaging with influential historical figures from both China and the West, students can derive more comprehensive and integrated insights for personal inspiration and self-improvement.

Students can acquire valuable insights into the varied perspectives of influential figures from diverse historical, religious, philosophical, and scientific backgrounds, which can shed light on their interpretations of the world. The conflicting viewpoints of these figures often spark intense debates rooted in their respective epistemological frameworks. By encouraging students to reimagine hypothetical dialogues between these figures as if they coexisted, students can cultivate a deeper understanding of the richness and diversity of human experiences. This interactive exercise can foster students’ tolerance and respect for different cultures (Binmore, 2021). These imaginative dialogues, centred on specific philosophical issues, provide opportunities for each tradition to recognise the truths and strengths present in other traditions as well as within their own. Meanwhile, these dialogues reveal the underlying idolatries and falsehoods inherent in any tradition, which can prompt students to identify previously unquestioned boundaries and tendencies towards claiming absolute truth when it comes to cultural understanding (Meijun & Zhihe, 2015). Throughout GE courses, students will engage openly, reflectively, and dialogically with a wide range of topics from multiple perspectives in collaboration with their teachers and peers (Weiss & Helskog, 2022). There are four primary themes emerging from these cross-cultural dialogues, namely theological discussions focusing on the intellectual and philosophical dimensions of religious faith, spiritual explorations emphasising personal, spiritual, and existential experiences, ethical deliberations delving into moralities, values, and dispositions, as well as everyday life considerations addressing common issues confronting individuals and cultures (Helskog & Stokke, 2014). Meanwhile, the successful attainment of any cross-cultural dialogue ideally involves four dimensions, namely reflecting on history while being cognisant of one’s own standards and circumstances, understanding the values and logic underpinning other cultures, seeking common ground as trans-cultural universals, as well as cultivating openness towards others while being receptive to learning from them (Pohl, 2023).

Conducting comparisons among diverse cultures, traditions, and societies

Several GE courses offered by HKU exemplify how teachers guide students in exploring the dynamics between China and the West throughout the course. For example, in the course CCCH9029: Ideas and Practices of Healing Arts in Traditional Chinese Medicine , students delve into contrasting and connecting traditional Chinese medicine with modern science and medicine through engaging in in-class debates on controversial cases. In the course CCCH9037: Chinese Mythology , students will compare China’s mythological traditions with those of other ancient civilizations such as Greece, Scandinavia, and Native America, by delivering oral presentations and writing essay reports to deepen their understanding of these mythological narratives. In the course CCCH9052: Arts, Science, and Artifacts in Chinese Cultural Heritage , students will integrate scientific object testing, analysis, and appraisal techniques on Chinese material culture, artworks, and artifacts, and engage in hands-on examinations and real measurements using various online and printed resources. Similarly, a comparable approach is evident in some GE courses offered by PolyU, which focus on examining the cultural assumptions that influence interactions between China and the West. For example, in the course CHC2CN08P: Mutual Impressions of China and the West , students will analyse records like travelogues, diaries, memoirs, and imaginative literary works produced by the Chinese and Westerns since the mid-19th century in their lectures, tutorials, and assignments to illuminate the evolving perceptions and encounters between the two cultures. In the course CBS1CN32: Contemporary Chinese and Western Art and Cultural Interactions , students will evaluate the aesthetic and cultural exchanges between Western and Chinese arts in terms of production, reception, and consumption by engaging in Question-and-Answer sessions at the conclusion of each weekly lecture and group discussions during tutorials to deepen their understanding of these cultural interactions. All these GE courses provide students with a platform to critically analyse and appreciate the nuanced complexities of cultural interactions between China and the West.

In many GE courses, students have the opportunity to explore how Chinese cultures have influenced and been influenced by interactions with other cultures. By delving into these cross-cultural exchanges, students can grasp the interconnectedness of cultures, traditions, and societies. Understanding a variety of ideas and practices from both Chinese and Western cultures enables students to cultivate a holistic and inclusive understanding of the world, rather than viewing it through a fragmented or piecemeal lens (Yang, 2018). Achieving cultural self-awareness necessitates acknowledging and valuing differences among various cultures. This process involves comparing one’s own culture with others and gaining insights into the reasons behind the similarities and differences in histories, origins, characteristics, and future trajectories of various cultures. Continuous learning and appreciation of cultural diversity require critical introspection, self-examination, and reflection, which can encourage students to seek common ground while respecting unique differences (Yang & Gao, 2020). Through conducting intercultural comparisons in GE courses, students come to realise that cultures and differences are not inherently good or bad, nor are they automatically superior or inferior. Instead, they are intrinsic aspects of human heritage shaped by individuals adapting to their lives and environments for various reasons throughout history. This comparative perspective in understanding cultures helps students avoid reluctance and resistance towards embracing cultural diversity rooted in deep-seated ethnocentric attitudes (Gay, 2013).

Highlighting the global implications of Chinese cultures

Several universities have structured their GE curriculum to guide students in navigating both national and global dimensions systematically and comprehensively. For example, in HKU’s GE curriculum, one of the Areas of Inquiry is titled China: Culture, State and Society , which aims to provide students with an understanding of the historical processes and international influences that have shaped the living conditions of the Chinese across different historical periods. Students will explore how the Chinese have lived in various contexts, engaged in value debates, and formed intricate identities and legacies. One of the major foci here is examining how China’s ongoing economic reforms have not only transformed the country but also created opportunities for other nations globally, which contribute to China’s emergence as a significant global power. Moreover, CUHK offers a domain titled Chinese Cultural Heritage within its GE curriculum. This domain introduces students to the fundamental characteristics of Chinese culture through an integrative approach. The emphasis is on recognising the relevance of Chinese cultures in contemporary life across different facets and components. Nonetheless, some universities do not explicitly offer a stand-alone domain on Chinese-related studies, but they instead establish a much broader and more inclusive domain. For instance, at LN/LU, there is a broad category titled Cultures and Ideas , which transcends singular paradigms or modes of thought and incorporates diverse methodologies to address course content. Students are encouraged to appreciate the values embedded in their own cultural heritage as well as in the traditions of other cultures worldwide, which acknowledge the coexistence and interactions of multiple cultures. These curriculum structures reflect a commitment to fostering students’ awareness of cultural diversity, promoting cross-cultural understanding, and encouraging critical engagement with various cultural perspectives. By integrating national and global dimensions into their GE curriculum structure, these universities aim to equip students with the relevant knowledge, skills, and values necessary to thrive in an interconnected and multicultural world.

In the context of Hong Kong’s education system, there is often a distinct separation between the justification for global citizenship education in economic terms and national identity education in political terms, which highlights somewhat disjointed and dichotomised relationship between the two. However, GE courses present many opportunities for teachers to help students understand the complexities and interpretations of both national and global dimensions (Kuah-Pearce & Fong, 2010). One effective approach is to teach about China in the world, which involves situating the study of China within a global context that emphasises its interactions, influences, and relationships with other nations, cultures, and phenomena worldwide (Law, 2013). Moreover, viewing China as intricately connected with global histories, processes, phenomena, and trends necessitates adopting a relational perspective. The various manifestations of China globally result from parallels, linkages, continuities, and evolutions as Chinese dynamics engage with and contribute to the global system (Franceschini & Loubere, 2022). This approach aligns with the Chinese government’s ongoing efforts to promote Chinese values and enhance the global appeal of Chinese culture (Jihua & Ocón, 2024). It is also in line with the trend of internationalisation in higher education in the Chinese context, which involves integrating international, intercultural, and/or global dimensions into the curriculum (Singh & Kaur, 2023). By incorporating these global perspectives into GE courses, teachers can help students develop a nuanced understanding of China’s positioning in the world and its interactions with diverse global forces, which contribute to students’ cultural awareness and global citizenship.

Proposing alternative discourses for the world knowledge system

Some GE courses place a strong emphasis on exploring traditional Chinese discourses and philosophical traditions. For instance, PolyU offers a GE course CHC1CM35P: Ways of Chinese Wisdom , which introduces students to the teachings of major Chinese schools of thought, emphasizing moral values and conscience in Confucianism, spontaneity and spiritual liberation in Taoism, the doctrine of dependent origination in Buddhism, and rule by law in Legalism. The course aims to illuminate how discourses from diverse Chinese traditions can address philosophical questions about human existence and its challenges, which can offer another critical perspective that can help in re-evaluating and interpreting the Western tradition. Another example is a GE course HUMA 3800: Guided Studies in Chinese Philosophical Classics offered by HKUST, which guides students in grappling with hermeneutical issues associated with selected Chinese philosophical classics, including works by prominent figures like Mencius, Xunzi, Laozi, Zhuangzi, Mozi, Gongsun Longzi, and Wang Yang-ming, as well as inquiry topics like “the basis of rites”, “the rectification of names”, “the four beginnings”, “the four metaphors”, “evil nature”, “ineffable Dao”, “the butterfly’s dream”, “the fish’s happiness”, “white horse is not horse”, “the immutability of things”, “the impure nature of Buddhas”, “embracing the six qualities” and “the questions on Great Learning”. An additional example is a GE course CCCH9024: Following the Dao: Ways of Life in Chinese Thought offered by HKU, which encourages students to explore a wide array of thoughts, values, and ways of life advocated by major philosophical schools in traditional China, including Confucius, Mozi, Mengzi, Zhuangzi, Zhu Xi, and Dai Zhen. The course focuses on concepts such as effort, spontaneity, purification, and reform as articulated by these influential figures in Chinese philosophical history. These GE courses offer students a deep dive into traditional Chinese philosophical traditions, which can guide them through key texts, teachings, and philosophical inquiries that have shaped Chinese intellectual thought over centuries. By engaging with these texts and ideas, students can gain a profound understanding of Chinese wisdom, and its immediate relevance to broader philosophical inquiries about human existence and ethical dilemmas.

In the Chinese context, indigenous knowledges offer distinct methodological and epistemological perspectives that serve as alternative discourses to the predominantly Western-centric modern knowledge system, which often exhibits asymmetries and hegemonies (Shen et al., 2024). To bridge Chinese and Western knowledge representations harmoniously, it is essential to transcend conventional categorisations and delineations by mapping these knowledges along an epistemological continuum (Xu, 2013). In GE courses, teachers are tasked with presenting indigenous Chinese knowledge as cohesive belief systems rooted in a wealth of social wisdom and a long-standing tradition of reverence for scholarship (Yang, 2018). By establishing this foundation, teachers can facilitate dialogues that address common global challenges on an equitable basis, while also navigating the discontinuities and disparities among knowledge domains situated in varied social contexts (Roulleau-Berger, 2021). Moreover, exploring how indigenous Chinese traditions of thought can inspire and inform broadly applicable social and political theories and concepts is a crucial aspect of this learning and teaching process (Yang, 2023a). Furthermore, resolving contemporary issues and crises as emphasised by the GE curriculum often involves striking a balance among diverse worldviews and drawing strength from millennia-old cultural accomplishments within respective traditions (Wang et al., 2021). Lastly, the traditional values inherent in Chinese culture have not only underpinned its global expansion but have also played a role in challenging Western discourse hegemony (Dai & Cheng, 2022). All these can contribute to promoting epistemic justice by fostering the development of a new knowledge framework that amalgamates elements from both Chinese and Western traditions (Li & Yang, 2020). By integrating indigenous Chinese perspectives with Western knowledge paradigms throughout the GE courses, students can develop a more inclusive and comprehensive understanding of the world.

Exploring cultures through real-life encounters and engagement

EdUHK offers students a diverse range of experiential learning, co-curricular, and service learning courses as part of their GE curriculum. Some of the experiential learning courses provide students with hands-on experiences that enrich their understanding of Chinese cultures and traditions. For example, the course GEL1001: Exploring Hong Kong’s Rural Heritage and Nature involves students contacting and documenting specific groups of inhabitants in rural villages, as well as creating a website and producing a video documentary that showcases information about the village and its people. Another course GEL2015: Han Buddhism: A Tie in the East Asian Cultural Sphere includes guided tours to various Buddhist cultural relics and monuments in Lingnan, Guangzhou, Shaoguan, and Hong Kong, which can offer students a first-hand exploration of Han Buddhism within the East Asian cultural sphere. Some of the co-curricular and service learning courses emphasise the promotion of Chinese cultures and traditions. For example, the course GEM1050 Implementation of Whole Person Development through Drama with Chinese Culture involves students participating in drama activities and service learning projects related to Chinese culture, which can foster their whole-person development in terms of creative thinking skills, communication skills, collaboration skills, independent and critical thinking skills, and intrapersonal skills. Another course GEM2037 Story Reading in Chinese to Non-Chinese-Speaking (NCS) Children involves students engaging in story reading and storytelling activities with young non-Chinese-speaking children, which can enhance their social-cultural engagement with diverse ethnic groups and reflecting on the challenges these children face in learning Chinese. Similar GE courses are found in HKU, such as CCCH5057: Shaping Health in China which involves students visiting HKU-Shenzhen Hospital and the nearby community to reflect on and analyze the physical, mental, and social health issues facing the population. Students can gain insights into health challenges and interventions in China. Another similar GE course is found in CUHK, which is UGEC2299 Lingnan: History and Society which focuses on helping students comprehend the country and the world through the lenses of business, migration, culture, and scholarship, as well as the participation in field visits to museums, villages, temples, communities, and enterprises. Students can have a wide exposure to various aspects of history and society in the Lingnan region. These GE courses provide students with opportunities to go beyond the traditional classrooms, and engage directly with Chinese culture, society, and history through practical experiences and field visits. By immersing themselves in these contexts, students can cultivate a more comprehensive and nuanced appreciation of Chinese heritage and society.

GE courses play a crucial role in facilitating students’ acquisition of diverse embodied knowledge by engaging with individuals from various communities and civilisations, which in turn influences their beliefs, values, and perspectives on themselves, others, and society. This exposure enables students to analyse and appreciate different cultures, which can lead to the reinforcement and reconstruction of their self-identity (Onosu, 2021). Through these interactions, students can cultivate mutual understanding, respect, and appreciation for diverse cultural and epistemic backgrounds, which can prevent potential disputes and conflicts in the long run (Shen et al., 2024). Immersing students in various cultures through GE courses can contribute to fostering a national identity rooted in cultural pride and confidence, which emphasises the importance of adopting a soft approach to cultural appreciation (Xu, 2018). Engaging with cultural similarities and differences not only presents challenges to students’ identities, but also strengthens their cultural connections and enriches their overall learning experiences (Heppner & Wang, 2014). It is important for employing nuanced and contextual approaches at both the curriculum and classroom levels to prevent China-related elements from merely becoming a checklist for memorisation without internalisation and integration into student’s personal beliefs and worldviews (Kiang & Szeto, 2021). Therefore, experiential, co-curricular, and servicing learning are all valuable tools in helping students develop the cross-cultural knowledge and skills necessary for cultural competence, which can enhance their ability to navigate diverse cultural landscapes (Kratzke & Bertolo, 2013). By providing students with opportunities to engage with diverse perspectives and experiences, GE curriculum and courses can contribute to the development of all-round students capable of navigating an increasingly multicultural world.

Offering discussion space for the exchange of ideas and perspectives

Universities often incorporate compulsory weekly tutorial sessions in their GE courses to provide students with opportunities to clarify and deepen their understanding of course concepts through interactive dialogues with peers and teachers. In PolyU, a GE course CHC2CM11P: Celebrated Literacy Chinese Writings involves students engaging in discussions on the literacy distinctions, ideological content, cultural significance, historical impact, and social relevance of classic Chinese writings such as rhymed pieces, prose, drama, and fiction. In the weekly tutorials, students have the opportunity to interact with peers and instructors to share insights and perspectives on these literary works. Another GE course FH1M11: Chinese History in Cultural Heritage divides students into groups to study different regions of China, and to explore tangible and intangible cultural heritages in those areas. During the tutorial sessions, students will present their research findings, and discuss issues related to the identification, evaluation, interpretation, preservation, revitalisation, and sustainable development of these heritage sites. Similar examples can be found in some GE courses at HKU. For example, a GE course CCCH9027: China’s Ethnic Groups: Cultural Assimilation or Cultural Pluralism? Focuses on students’ interethnic experiences in terms of customs, religious practices, music, art, dance, and other cultural aspects. During the tutorial sessions, students will share their insights on ethnic identities in mainland China, Taiwan, Hong Kong, and Macau, which allows them to further explore the concepts of cultural assimilation and cultural pluralism. Another GE course CCCH9059: Encounters between China and the West divides students into small groups to discuss and debate various historical events involving interactions between China and the West. The tutorial sessions will focus on evaluating the goals and perspectives of different historical players and hypothesising how alternative strategies could have led to different outcomes. All these tutorial sessions embedded in GE courses provide a platform for students to actively engage with course materials, exchange ideas, and deepen their understanding.

Creating a safe and inclusive environment in GE classrooms is crucial to encourage students and teachers to express, explore, and question diverse viewpoints. Traditional cultural learning often focuses on imparting theoretical and factual knowledge without sufficient interaction and discussion. A more effective approach involves fostering discussions that bridge cultural divides, prompt reflection on personal norms and values, and facilitate the sharing and creation of new knowledge (Pitts & Brooks, 2017). These discussions, grounded in students’ everyday lives and cultural backgrounds, provide a platform to navigate complex issues and promote critical thinking. Through engaging in discussions that stem from students’ own life events and interests, the gap between students and traditional culture can subsequently be bridged, which can lead to a deeper understanding and appreciation of different cultural perspectives (Zhang, 2022). Meanwhile, encouraging students to negotiate and position their self-understanding and identity within the context of their societies is essential for acknowledging both strengths and struggles embedded across various cultures (Curry, 2012). As global citizens, students need to learn how to balance their dedication to their national community with engagement in international affairs, which can foster their critical reasoning and thinking skills regarding public affairs (Wong et al., 2021). The interactive and discussion-based learning approaches employed across GE courses not only bring students from diverse backgrounds together, but also facilitate the establishment of intercultural friendships, which can promote mutual understanding and respect (Singh & Kaur, 2023). By co-creating a collaborative and open-minded learning environment among teachers and students, GE classrooms can inspire students to better embrace cultural diversity.

Learning to become a true human person

Some universities offer GE courses that employ an everyday theme-based approach to help students integrate Chinese and Western insights, which can foster their personal growth and allow them to cultivate a better understanding of human experiences. At CityU, the course GE2109: Love, Sex, and Relationships: Psychological Perspectives explores the psychological factors that influence love, sexuality, and relationships across different cultures. Students will learn to build healthy interpersonal relationships for both personal and professional contexts, and to integrate psychological knowledge and ethical considerations in their interactions. Another course GE2130: Happiness: An Interdisciplinary Perspective examines the concept of happiness from philosophical, biological, psychological, sociological, and religious perspectives in Chinese and other societies. Students will explore essential aspects of happiness like subjective well-being, optimism, resilience, creativity, and faith to cultivate positive emotions and traits for personal and institutional well-being. At EdUHK, there is a set of GE courses offered under the domain of Positive and Values Education , which focus on cultivating students’ both morals and values towards positiveness, character strengths, and well-being through understanding and reflecting on personal, local, national, and global cultures and values. For example, the course GEK1006: Taste of Life: The Meaning of Suffering and Hope aims to cultivate students’ empathetic understanding, existential reflection, and positive attitude in facing life challenges. By drawing insights from classic Chinese and Western philosophical and religious traditions, students will learn to make more well-informed decisions and cope with their respective everyday difficulties. Another course GEK1011: The Building Blocks of Flourishing Happiness, Engagement, and Meaning allows students to explore optimal well-being through the latest empirical research, and to examine the conditions that are conducive to human flourishing from philosophical and scientific perspectives. An additional course GEK2017: Mindfulness Approaches for Promoting Well-being and Health in Modern World introduces students to a series of hands-on mindfulness practices for enhancing self-awareness, self-regulation, and promoting well-being, positive emotions, physical health, and mental health in various life contexts, such as family, school, business, and the public domain.

Being humane is considered a fundamental quality that defines individuals. Therefore, it is essential for students to recognise and acknowledge the humanity in others as well as in themselves through the GE curriculum and courses (Brabazon, 2021). To truly embody humanity, students need to continuously cultivate moral and ethical virtues by embracing the full spectrum of humanity within themselves, their families, communities, countries, and the world (Xu, 2013). Both Chinese and Western educators emphasise the role of education in optimizing students’ integral development as human beings, with a specific focus on values cultivation as a primary goal (Hui, 2024). The nurturing of students with strong moral and spiritual capacities, alongside scientific and social knowledge, is crucial for their holistic development (Hayhoe, 2012). Both educational traditions from China and the West advocate humanistic and holistic approaches to help students situate themselves within broader social contexts, which involve connecting their life paths with the collective experience of humankind, and ultimately enabling them to lead meaningful and fulfilling lives (Cheng, 2017). Meanwhile, by fostering students as a whole person with harmonised knowledge, abilities, and qualities, the groundwork is laid for the development of an ideal society in the future (Pang et al., 2020). The shared humanity among students from diverse cultural backgrounds serves as a unifying factor, which can foster authentic expression and critical reflection on personal experiences and societal realities. Through this shared understanding, students can enhance their comprehension of themselves in relation to others and the world under a deeper sense of interconnectedness (Holloway et al., 2023). By emphasising the development of students as morally conscious and socially responsible individuals, GE curriculum and courses play a significant role in nurturing a future generation of citizens who are not only intellectually proficient but also compassionate and empathetic when it comes to the collective efforts in contributing to a more harmonious and inclusive society.

Discussions and implications

The aforementioned eight strategies implemented by the eight Hong Kong’s publicly funded universities showcase how Chinese values, forms, and practices have been effectively integrated into the dominant Western educational framework within contemporary university contexts. These strategies also demonstrate how these universities are sensitive to contextual variations when assimilating and harmonising diverse cultural perspectives and values within their GE programmes and courses. This process involves adaptation and indigenisation, which recognise that cultures are dynamic and diverse rather than uniform and static (Forestier & Crossley, 2015). This integration also aligns closely with the trend of glocalisation, where foreign educational models are imported and localised by blending global ideas with local cultures and values (Oanh, 2012). Such practices are essential for addressing historical concerns regarding imbalances, asymmetries, and contradictions in university contexts where Western values coexist alongside traditional Chinese cultural foundations, which may not always be seamlessly compatible (Yang, 2016). After all, it is crucial to move beyond the conception that China and the West represent opposing and irreconcilable ideologies, given that this perspective can be limiting and divisive (Young, 2023). Instead, fostering mutual and reciprocal learning between these cultures, as evidenced by the GE programmes and courses discussed in this study, can promote constructive dialogues among civilisations with a sense of shared identity and awareness. By engaging individuals in this dialogue, a sense of “we-consciousness” emerges, which emphasises collaboration and understanding over confrontation and division, and it can remain beneficial for the long-term development of universities (Holloway et al., 2023).

By aligning the eight strategies introduced by the eight Hong Kong’s publicly funded universities with this study’s adapted theoretical framework of “cultural hybridisation” suggested by Kwok-Bun and Peverelli (2010), there are several implications regarding how these universities incorporate Chinese and Western elements into their GE programmes and courses. This study indicates that the first three pathways of essentialising, alternating, and converting have not been utilised by these universities. These pathways, which may reinforce fixed cultural boundaries or displace certain cultural narratives, are not conducive to fostering cross-cultural understanding effectively. Instead, the universities have opted for the pathways of hybridising and innovating. Both pathways allow for a balanced blending of cultures and the creation of new cultural expressions, which can offer a more ideal approach to cultural integration. Moreover, by prioritising pathways that promote cultural hybridisation, these universities demonstrate a commitment to embracing change and adapting to evolving cultural dynamics. This flexibility enables them to stay relevant and responsive to the needs of diverse student populations and a globally interconnected world. It also facilitates meaningful cultural exchange and mutual learning among students of varying backgrounds. Furthermore, by integrating Chinese and Western features in a balanced and creative manner, universities can help students develop a deeper appreciation for the complexities and nuances of diverse cultural traditions. The diverse learning opportunities and interactive environments encourage students to engage in continuous exploration and innovation of cultures, which can enhance their intercultural competence in an increasingly globalising world.

Although this study has highlighted the eight strategies employed by the eight Hong Kong’s publicly funded universities individually, there is a potential to weave them together to further bridge and integrate both Chinese and Western features within GE programmes and courses. By connecting traditional Chinese knowledge with contemporary perspectives, students can gain insights into the evolution of Chinese culture and its relevance in the modern context. This foundational understanding sets the stage for engaging in meaningful cross-cultural dialogues with influential figures where students can apply their theoretical knowledge to practical discussions that bridge cultural divides and foster mutual understanding. Real-life encounters and engagements involving different cultures can further enrich these dialogues and discussions, which expand students’ cultural competence. By providing dedicated spaces for the exchange of ideas and perspectives, students can actively share insights and learn collaboratively in a cross-cultural learning environment. As these dialogues progress, students are encouraged to compare and contrast diverse cultures, traditions, and societies, which can foster a deeper appreciation for both the similarities and differences that exist worldwide. This comparative analysis enhances their cultural literacy and emphasises the interconnectedness of global communities. Furthermore, by highlighting the global implications of Chinese cultures, students are prompted to consider the broader impact of cultural practices and values, which can spark spontaneous discussions around proposing alternative discourses for the global knowledge system.

Conclusion, research limitations, and future research directions

Conclusion

Hong Kong’s education system needs to evolve educational approaches that assimilate, expand upon, and amalgamate values from both Chinese and Western systems while advancing the educational discourse locally, nationally, and globally (Hayhoe, 2012). This study contributes to the existing scholarship on East Asian universities by illustrating the ways of selectively borrowing from the West while freely drawing upon their own robust Chinese academic traditions in the educational discourse (Bhandari & Fefébure, 2015). This study utilises GE programmes and courses offered by the eight Hong Kong’s publicly funded universities as research sites to explore the interplay of Chinese and Western elements in the university context. The eight strategies include connecting traditional Chinese knowledge with contemporary lens, undergoing cross-cultural dialogues with influential figures, conducting comparisons among diverse cultures, traditions, and societies, highlighting the global implications of Chinese cultures, proposing alternative discourses for the world knowledge system, exploring cultures through real-life encounters and engagement, offering discussion space for the exchange of ideas and perspectives, as well as learning to become a true human person. All these eight strategies serve as guidance for teachers in designing and delivering cross-cultural learning and teaching content and activities (see Table 1).

Table 1.

Summary of the eight strategies of embracing, bridging, and integrating both the Chinese and Western features into the aims, content, and approaches of general education programmes and courses.

Strategy	Description
Connecting traditional Chinese knowledge with contemporary lens	By connecting traditional Chinese culture with modern-day lifestyles within the GE course materials, students are able to gain a deeper appreciation for the abundant heritage and wisdom present in traditional Chinese knowledge systems. This approach enables them to grasp the historical importance and distinctive perspectives that these systems bring to their everyday life experiences.
Undergoing cross-cultural dialogues with influential figures	As students delve into the perspectives of significant figures from both Chinese and Western backgrounds across history, religion, philosophy, and science in GE courses, they encounter divergent and sometimes conflicting views of how to perceive and interpret the world. This exposure sparks lively debates among students regarding the epistemological frameworks underlying the perspectives of these figures.
Conducting comparisons among diverse cultures, traditions, and societies	Through their GE courses, students can grasp how Chinese cultures have influenced and been influenced by interactions with diverse cultures. This exploration allows students to recognise the interdependence of cultures, traditions, and societies. By appreciating that a wide array of ideas and practices, encompassing both Chinese and Western influences, contribute to a more inclusive and holistic understanding of the world, students can cultivate a comprehensive worldview rather than one that is fragmented and disjointed.
Highlighting the global implications of Chinese cultures	GE courses situate the study of China within a global framework, which involves highlighting its interactions, influences, and relationships with other nations, cultures, and global phenomena. This approach enables students to comprehend the diverse perspectives and interpretations of both the local and global aspects.
Proposing alternative discourses for the world knowledge system	Through their GE coursework, students can gain valuable insights into numerous indigenous knowledge systems within the Chinese context. This exposure provides them with alternative discourses to the predominantly Western-centric and knowledge systems. Students can have a dialogue that addresses common issues faced by humanity on equal footing.
Exploring cultures through real-life encounters and engagement	Through their GE courses, students interact with individuals from various communities and civilisations, which impact their beliefs, values, and perspectives regarding themselves, others, and society. This engagement allows students to analyse and value their own culture as well as others, and contribute to the reinforcement and reconstruction of their self-identity.
Offering discussion space for the exchange of ideas and perspectives	By encouraging students and teachers to incorporate their everyday lives and cultural backgrounds into GE classrooms, discussions can be facilitated that bridge cultural divides, promote reflection on personal norms and values, and foster the sharing and creation of new knowledge.
Learning to become a true human person	By fostering a learning environment where students are encouraged to acknowledge the humanity in others and have their own humanity recognised by their peers within the GE curriculum and courses, students can develop a stronger sense of their place within broader social contexts. This can help them link their personal journeys with the larger human experience, and potentially leading them to realise a more meaningful and fulfilling life.

Research limitations and future research directions

This study has several research limitations and offers potential directions for future research. First, this study primarily focused on analysing the online webpages of GE programmes and courses across the eight Hong Kong’s publicly funded universities. This limited scope may not provide a comprehensive understanding of the actual implementation and impact of integrating Chinese and Western features in programmes and courses. Future researchers could consider employing diverse methods, such as conducting classroom observations to capture cross-cultural learning interactions, implementing questionnaire surveys and interviews to gather perspectives from teachers and students, and launching longitudinal studies to track students’ learning experiences in GE programmes and courses. Additionally, this study adopted a cross-sectional perspective to examine the integration of Chinese and Western features in GE programmes and courses across the eight Hong Kong’s publicly funded universities. Considering that each university possesses its unique traditions, cultures, and contexts, future research could explore how the institutional characteristics of a university influence its approaches to integrating Chinese and Western features in GE programmes and courses. Understanding the dynamic interplay of policies, institutions, individuals, and cultures in the enactment of GE is crucial for a comprehensive analysis. Furthermore, this study focused on the contexts of the eight Hong Kong’s publicly funded universities, which limit the generalisability of the findings to other educational settings or regions due to contextual variations. Future research could aim to conduct comparative studies across different universities or regions worldwide, particularly in East Asia, to investigate similarities and differences in integrating Chinese and Western features in GE programmes and courses, and gain insights into the various approaches to cross-cultural integration in universities across various cultural settings around the world.