An evidence-based inclusive pedagogical approach in action and its insights for enhancing the professional competence of inclusive education teachers in China

Abstract

Enhancing professional competence of inclusive education teachers is a crucial measure to promote the development of inclusive education. The Inclusive Pedagogical Approach in Action is an evidence-based framework that has demonstrated effectiveness in various countries, providing comprehensive, practical, and specific advantages for enhancing the professional competence of inclusive education teachers. In this study, the formation backgrounds, theoretical connotations, and practical applications of this framework was systematically analyzed to gain insights into enhancing the professional competence of inclusive education teachers in China. The findings suggested that inclusive education teachers should develop evidence-based thinking, respect students’ diversity, uphold their inclusive education beliefs, foster multi-stakeholder collaboration, and tailor solutions to the local contexts. Implementing these measures is expected to promote the high-quality development of inclusive education in China.

Introduction

There has been an international consensus that advancing inclusive and equitable education is essential for improving the quality of education, since the United Nations Summit in 2015 approved the Transforming Our World: the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development (United Nations, 2015). In 2019, UNESCO issued the Cali Commitment to Equity and Inclusion in Education, further stressing the need for governments to accelerate their endeavors to foster inclusive education (UNESCO, 2019). Clearly, inclusive education has become the mainstream direction in current international education development (Feng et al., 2020). Research evidence from different countries, such as China and Scotland, has indicated that inclusive education teachers (IE teachers) play a key role in inclusive education (Tang et al., 2023; Wilson et al., 2022). Inclusive education teachers, are those who work in regular schools and teach both students with and without disabilities in the same classrooms (Mu et al., 2017). In China, as an increasing number of students with disabilities attending regular schools and inadequate provision of professional special education teachers in these schools, IE teachers shoulder greater more educational responsibilities, including instruction, resource integration, and social support in inclusive classrooms (Deng et al., 2016). Consequently, the advancement of inclusive education in China highly depends on the professional competence of IE teachers (Wang et al., 2018a).

However, the lack of professionalism among IE teachers in China has become a significant barrier to improving the quality of inclusive education (Deng & Zhao, 2019). Specifically, existing studies have indicated that some IE teachers in China exhibit a negative attitude towards inclusive education (Wang, 2023), possess insufficient professional knowledge (Wei et al., 2017), lack adequate skills (Li, 2012), and struggle to actively seek and obtain support from others (Zhang & Gao, 2014). Furthermore, previous studies have found that the approach to improving the professional competence of IE teachers in China remains unclear (Li et al., 2022; Wang, 2021), characterized by limited focus, weak practical guidance, and neglect of the initiative of IE teachers. First, most scholars concentrate on the inclusive philosophy upheld by IE teachers (Pan & Huang, 2021; Peng & Lei, 2015), while the required professional competence structure of IE teachers is often overlooked (Wang et al., 2018a; Zhou & Wang, 2017). Second, previous research on the inclusive competence of IE teachers mostly consisted of theoretical discussion (Li, 2022), lacking evidence-based practical strategies (Du & Zhang, 2023; Feng et al., 2016). Third, existing research often emphasizes providing external support to IE teachers but often neglects how these teachers can proactively reconstruct their professional roles and skills (Wang & Quan, 2016). Therefore, it is essential to explore the comprehensive, practical, and specific development path for IE teachers to improve their professional competence in China.

The evidence-based teacher development mode is vital for cultivating high-quality teachers and driving reform and advancement in teacher education (Zhao & Zou, 2022). Evidence-based refers to following evidence, and the evidence-based advocates that both educational practices and policy decisions should be based on rigorous scientific evidence and integrate the professional wisdom of relevant individuals and the most effective empirical evidence (Liang et al., 2019). For IE teachers, the evidence-based Inclusive Pedagogical Approach in Action (IPAA) is an effective framework that can be used to develop their professional competence.

The IPAA is an evidence-based framework that is guided by experts and teachers’ professional wisdom and practical evidence, and follows the path of continually forming the best scientific evidence (Zou & Huang, 2022). Its purpose is to objectively assess and guide the development of professional competence for IE teachers. In addition, the IPAA focuses on specific issues in the theory and practice of inclusive education, promotes the overall development of the professional competence of IE teachers through evidence-based inclusive strategies, and values personal initiative in the development of their professional competence. Therefore, it offers the advantages of comprehensiveness, practicality, and specificity in enhancing the professional competence of IE teachers. To date, IPAA has been successfully applied to professional competence development programs for IE teachers in Europe (Florian & Spratt, 2013), Asia (Klibthong & Agbenyega, 2018), and Africa (Moosa & Bekker, 2021). These applications have demonstrated the effectiveness of IPAA in enhancing the professional competence of IE teachers.

This paper aims to conduct a comprehensive analysis of the formation backgrounds, theoretical connotations, and practical applications of IPAA, to provide valuable insights into improving the professional competence of IE teachers in China.

Formation backgrounds of IPAA

The dilemma of inclusive philosophy

The IPAA has been developed over a long period of research and practice to address the challenges posed by the resistance of inclusive philosophy. To implement high-quality inclusive education, IE teachers must first establish a correct inclusive philosophy. However, on the one hand, there was still a gap between the ideal inclusive philosophy and the actual inclusive practice (Larsen et al., 2019). This discrepancy can be attributed to the absence of precise definitions of the inclusive philosophy and associated principles of inclusive education (Xie & Lin, 2024). As a result, inclusive education practices vary in form and quality. On the other hand, from a practical perspective, the pre-service training of IE teachers often focused on educating typically developing students. However, when they started working in schools, they were often confronted with a wide variety of students with disabilities. This general lack of knowledge about inclusive education and students with disabilities also exacerbated the confusion and uncertainty among IE teachers about inclusive education (Wang et al., 2018b). This, in turn, impacted their attitudes towards inclusive education as well as their grasp of the inclusive philosophy.

At present, IE teachers in China generally have yet to establish a unified and positive philosophy of inclusive education (Wang et al., 2018b). Existing studies have indicated that both pre-service teachers in early childhood education and elementary education generally hold negative overall attitudes towards inclusive education, exhibit low levels of recognition of its value, and prefer placing students with disabilities in special schools (Chen & Zan, 2018; Wang et al., 2022a). Moreover, surveys of in-service teachers in China have revealed a variety of attitudes towards inclusive education, ranging from positive to neutral and even negative (Hu et al., 2019; Pan & Huang, 2021; Shi & Chen, 2017). In addition, with the development of inclusive education, the inclusive philosophy is shifting towards a broader perspective that supports all students, expanding its focus beyond solely students with disabilities to encompass all students (Tang et al., 2023). These all imply that IE teachers are facing an urgent dilemma in inclusive philosophy, and it is vital for them to gain a deeper understanding of the essence and philosophy of inclusive education.

The dilemma of inclusive practice

In addition, IPAA has evolved to address the cognitive, emotional, and skill challenges faced by IE teachers in their inclusive practices. For IE teachers, what constitutes inclusive practice, how to implement inclusive practice, and how to address the challenges encountered in inclusive practice are issues that have long plagued them in practice.

First, IE teachers generally lack fundamental knowledge of special education and inclusive education (Tu et al., 2020; Zhu & Wang, 2015). For instance, due to the lack of basic knowledge of inclusive education, some IE teachers may either deny or overemphasize the differences among students. As a result, they may group students by abilities using bell curve thinking. However, this approach limits learning opportunities and disregards right to free development of students with disabilities (Lynn Fendler, 2008). Second, IE teachers often exhibit lower self-esteem and self-efficacy compared to special education teachers (Zan et al., 2011; Zhang, 2006), which will reduce their initiative and enthusiasm in teaching and ultimately impact their teaching effectiveness in inclusive practices (Xiong et al., 2019). Third, IE teachers might exhibit inadequate skills related to differentiated instruction, collaborative teaching, classroom environment creation, and seeking external support (Li, 2022). Therefore, the challenges related to cognitive, emotional, and practical skills make it difficult for IE teachers to define what constitutes effective inclusive practice (Alduais & Deng, 2023). Moreover, they are also unclear about how to implement effective strategies within complex educational contexts in the classroom and how to obtain external support (Florian & Spratt, 2013).

Theoretical connotations of IPAA

The theoretical connotations of IPAA are rooted in sociocultural theories of learning that take full account of inter-individual differences (Florian & Linklater, 2010). Specifically, IPAA views learning as a shared activity and moves away from the traditional aim of adopting pedagogical approaches that work for most students to providing rich learning opportunities that are fully available to everyone. Therefore, IPAA emphasizes the significance of IE teachers treating all students equally and facilitating equal learning and collaboration among students. This means that each lesson is unique for each student and ensures that all students are fully engaged in the classroom environment.

In addition, the development path of IPAA is also grounded in the evidence-based concept. Evidence-based concept incorporates teachers’ subject experience and practical wisdom as well as scientific evidence from existing research (Zou & Huang, 2022). Its scientific orientation is considered the best entry point into teaching practice and is also widely used in special education. Specifically the researchers first proposed the components of IPAA by conducting observations and interviews with Scottish elementary school teachers, consulting expert opinions, and reviewing existing literature (Florian & Black-Hawkins, 2011). Inclusive pedagogical approach in action was then utilized in the Inclusion in Practice Project in Scotland to assess the effectiveness of this framework in improving the professional competence of IE teachers in practice. The results of the project indicated that the application of IPAA improved the professional competence of IE teachers to effectively implement inclusive practice (Florian & Spratt, 2013), providing the most reliable evidence for the framework. Finally, IPAA has also been progressively applied to IE teacher training programs in Europe (Florian & Spratt, 2013), Asia (Klibthong & Agbenyega, 2018), and Africa (Moosa & Bekker, 2021), demonstrating its effectiveness in improving the professional competence of IE teachers.

Practical applications of IPAA

The practical strategies of IPAA

The widely used IPAA framework consists of four dimensions, including assumptions, associated concepts and action, key challenges, and evidence/what to look for in practice (Florian, 2015). Among these, the three assumptions serve as the foundational elements of this framework and are critical guiding factors for the professional development of IE teachers. Based on these three assumptions, the framework also explicitly outlines the associated concepts and action goals that IE teachers should achieve in implementing inclusive education, the challenges they may face in forming these associated concepts and action goals, and the practical strategies derived from practical evidence for IE teachers to implement inclusive practice.

Embracing differences: A vital element in human development

The first assumption of IPAA is that in any domain of learning, differences must be seen as an essential aspect of human development (Florian & Linklater, 2010). IPAA focuses on individual differences including all students, while explicitly rejecting any strategies that exacerbate differences (Florian, 2014). In other words, IPAA does not deny the differences among students in the learning process, and advocates for addressing these differences in ways that do not marginalize any student (Florian & Black-Hawkins, 2011). Based on this assumption, IE teachers need to establish a series of associated concepts and action goals. First, IE teachers need to replace the viewpoint that learning potential is deterministic with the perspective that learning potential is open-ended. Second, they need to recognize that differences are a part of the diversity in human development. Finally, they should reject the misconception that the presence of students with disabilities hinders the progress of other students, and develop a positive understanding of inclusive practices.

In practice, inappropriate notions held by IE teachers, such as bell curve thinking and the concept of fixed ability, may lead to challenges in their ability to understand and respond effectively to the diversity among students. Accordingly, a series of evidence-based strategies of IPAA have been described to address these challenges in inclusive practices (Florian, 2014). First, regarding the classroom environment, IE teachers need to create a physical and psychological environment that enables every student to fully engage in classroom activities. Second, concerning the learning content, IE teachers should broaden the content for all students by fostering a rich learning community and expanding available learning resources. Third, during the teaching process, IE teachers should implement differentiated instruction based on each student’s choice of activities, rather than relying on ability-based grouping as the sole means. Additionally, they should make extensive use of social constructivist methods to provide opportunities for students to collectively construct knowledge and engage in collaborative learning. Furthermore, IE teachers need to embrace the idea that each student has unique value in their classroom. This involves using positive language and employing formative assessment extensively to support the learning of all students.

Empowering beliefs: Ensuring inclusive education for all students

The second assumption of IPAA is that IE teachers need to believe that they are capable of teaching all students. Research has shown that pre-service teachers’ positive attitudes towards inclusion can be predicted by their confidence in working within an inclusive environment (Forlin et al., 2009). Similarly, this assumption suggests that IE teachers are indeed capable of teaching students with disabilities, but only lack confidence in their own skill development. Many IE teachers often believe that only teachers with strong special education backgrounds are competent to handle the education and teaching of students with disabilities (Florian, 2014). However, this view undermines IE teachers’ confidence to work in inclusive education and has a highly detrimental impact on their implementation of inclusive education practices. Therefore, the IPAA framework strongly emphasizes that every teacher has the ability to teach all students. Based on this assumption, IE teachers must first establish the correct associated concepts and action goals. It is essential to recognize that the students’ learning difficulties should not be viewed as personal problems or teacher limitations. Instead, IE teachers should regard them as problems need to be solved and seek solutions within the context of the problem at hand.

Guided by empirical evidence, four strategies were provided from the IPAA for IE teachers. First, IE teachers need to focus their attention on the specific learning needs of their students rather than on the roles of individual students. Second, IE teachers should provide students with opportunities to choose rather than predetermine their level of participation in the curriculum. Third, IE teachers need to build high-quality teacher-student relationships and focus on the holistic development of the student rather than just the acquisition of knowledge and skills. Further, IE teachers need to innovate flexible teaching strategies based on the needs of their students.

Fostering collaboration: Teachers’ ongoing innovation in working together

The third assumption of IPAA is that IE teachers need to engage in continuous professional development and maintain partnerships with various stakeholders. Specifically, IE teachers often face a variety of difficulties in practicing inclusive education, which reinforces the need for IE teachers to continually develop their individual professional competencies through training, collaboration, and other means (Florian & Black-Hawkins, 2011). Moreover, teacher collaboration is widely acknowledged as essential to implementing inclusive education (Florian, 2014). Therefore, the associated concepts and action based on the assumption is that IE teachers need to grow as lifelong learners and collaborators in inclusive practice.

On this basis, three strategies were offered from the IPAA derived from evidence of practice. First, it is important for IE teachers to comprehend the interactions among the roles of students with disabilities, professionals, family members, and the school to establish diverse spaces and scenarios for inclusive practice. Second, IE teachers should actively explore and test out diverse collaboration models to facilitate the learning of all students, which can be accomplished by working with other professionals to engage students in various contexts such as the school, the community, or the wider settings. Finally, in addition to collaborating with others in their teaching and learning activities to enhance the development of students, IE teachers need to build on each other’s strengths and complement each other’s weaknesses to improve their overall professional competence in collaboration.

The practical effectiveness of IPAA

So far, the IPAA framework has been utilized to evaluate and direct the enhancement of professional competence for IE teachers in Europe (Florian & Spratt, 2013), Asia (Klibthong & Agbenyega, 2018), and Africa (Moosa & Bekker, 2021). For instance, a study in Scotland trained primary and secondary school teachers from three distinct areas in a program based on the IPAA framework. Then, three follow-up surveys of participating teachers were conducted over one year to examine the effectiveness of the IPAA framework in enhancing the professional competence of IE teachers. The results demonstrated that the IPAA framework facilitated a precise comprehension of inclusion and increased self-efficacy in practice for IE teachers. Consequently, the framework helped bridge the gap between conceptualizing inclusive philosophy and actually implementing inclusive actions (Florian & Spratt, 2013). In addition, an inclusive school in Australia, in collaboration with the Department of Special Education of Thailand, has initiated a joint project for the professional development of IE teachers under the IPAA framework. The project used the IPAA as the pedagogical framework to explore the effectiveness of an international learning program to enhance the professional skills of IE teachers. The results of the study also showed that the use of the IPAA framework in a professional learning program was effective for IE teachers in enhancing relevant cognitive and practical skills (Klibthong & Agbenyega, 2018). Therefore, the IPAA framework is conducive for IE teachers to establish correct inclusive philosophy and enhance related cognition and skills, to facilitate the transformation of philosophy into practical application.

Most IE teachers face difficulties in improving their professional competence, including managing differences appropriately, building personal professional confidence, and continuously improving personal professional competence and promoting students’ progress through cooperation. IPAA breaks through the long-standing problems of inclusive philosophy, knowledge, and skill development of IE teachers, and provides a source of fresh water for the current theoretical and practical dilemmas faced by IE teachers.

Implications for inclusive education teachers in China

There is no one-size-fits-all educational paradigm. Inclusive pedagogical approach in action, rooted in Scotland’s distinct social culture, has demonstrated its effectiveness in evaluating and directing the competence of IE teachers. However, to enhance the professional competence of IE teachers in China, it is crucial to objectively and critically absorb appropriate experiences that can help develop and refine a localized model of professional growth for IE teachers. Thus, based on the formation backgrounds, theoretical connotations, and practical applications of the IPAA, the five approaches are purposed to enhance the professional competence of IE teachers in China.

Developing evidence-based thinking

From the perspective of its theoretical connotations, the IPAA not only adheres to the evidence-based concept in its development path but also emphasizes the application of evidence-based strategies within the framework. Therefore, the professional development of IE teachers in China should be rooted in the existing educational evidence in our country and highlight fostering IE teachers with evidence-based thinking.

In terms of professional development pathways, the structure of professional competence required for implementing inclusive education plays a significant role in guiding the professional growth of IE teachers. In the process of inclusive education development in China, there has been an ongoing debate on the structure of inclusive competence for IE teachers. Furthermore, there is limited research using empirical methods to validate the effectiveness and scientific nature of this structure (Wang et al., 2018a). Therefore, it is targeted, scientific, and practical to construct and assess the structure of inclusive competence for IE teachers, by adopting an approach that is grounded in practical issues, scientific evidence, and the integration of best practices and empirical evidence.

Furthermore, embedding evidence-based strategies into the educational and teaching process by IE teachers is a crucial factor in improving the quality of inclusive education (Zhang et al., 2023). As the main body of inclusive education work, IE teachers need to adopt evidence-based scientific evidence and best practices to meet the unique learning for students with disabilities. However, at present, there is a lack of systematic evidence-based practical strategies among IE teachers in China, and the professional development that incorporates evidence-based concept are still in its early stages (Xin et al., 2022). Therefore, IE teachers should remain abreast of the latest research on inclusive education, utilize evidence-based practices to reform their teaching approaches, and scientifically evaluate the efficiency of instructional strategies and support methods (She et al., 2023). Specifically, in terms of evidence application, IE teachers should prioritize the methods that have been proven to be effective and applicable to local education contexts, and use curriculum-based assessment methods to track students’ learning process before, during, and after teaching. In terms of evidence generation, IE teachers should focus on specific issues in inclusive practices and propose problem-solving solutions based on professional wisdom and scientific information (Xin et al., 2022). This process helps validate the scientific nature of localized intervention plans. Furthermore, IE teachers should also scientifically evaluate the appropriateness of inclusive education experiences from other countries for the Chinese context (Li et al., 2022). In summary, IE teachers need to embrace the fundamental concept and practice of evidence-based (Zan et al., 2011) and gradually develop an evidence-based mindset to promote the development of inclusive education in China.

Respecting students’ diversity

From the perspective of its practical applications, the IPAA first stresses that IE teachers should prioritize students’ differences and adopt proactive teaching approaches to mitigate them. Therefore, to improve the professional competence of IE teachers in China, IE teachers should respect the diversity of students and embrace the inclusive philosophy that promotes equality and diversity.

IE teachers play a crucial role in implementing inclusive education, as their teaching philosophy and attitudes are critical components for the successful implementation of inclusive practices (Wilson et al., 2022). A meta-analysis has suggested that although IE teachers demonstrate moderately positive attitudes towards inclusive education, there is considerable variation in their attitudes towards inclusive education due to differences in test populations, measurement methods, and cultural backgrounds (Tommy Van Steen, 2020). Specifically, a study conducted among Chinese IE teachers found that in the initial stages of inclusive education, IE teachers may have strong negative attitudes towards inclusive education due to lack of a relevant cognitive foundation for inclusive education. As the philosophy of inclusive education becomes more pervasive, most teachers will adopt a positive attitude towards it. However, as the need to improve the quality of inclusive education persists and practical implementation issues arise, IE teachers tend to have a cautious attitude towards inclusive education (Wang et al., 2018a). It can be seen that the attitudes of IE teachers towards inclusive education are influenced by a variety of factors and are highly evolvable. Therefore, we can adopt various methods actively to cultivate IE teachers’ inclusive philosophy of equitability and diversity.

For example, improving the inclusive philosophy and attitudes of IE teachers is highly feasible, as suggested by evidence from the Theory of Planned Behavior (Du & Jiang, 2023). The necessary first step is to enhance the working experience and recognition of inclusive education within IE teachers. Second, harnessing the positive impact of influential figures like resource teachers and successful IE teachers also can boost teachers’ inclusive beliefs. Finally, it is necessary to elevate the self-efficacy among IE teachers, which can be accomplished through various strategies, including offering the pre-service training for IE teachers, creating an IE teacher community, standardizing the assessment of students with disabilities before admission, and providing incentives through both material and psychological support. Overall, enhancing the professional competence of IE teachers necessitates the development of a pedagogical philosophy centered on inclusiveness, equity, and respect, as well as the adoption of relevant pedagogical tools that cater to diverse learning needs.

Upholding inclusive education beliefs

The practical implications of the IPAA also emphasize the need for IE teachers to believe in their ability to promote learning for all students. Therefore, to improve the professional competence of IE teachers in China, IE teachers need to uphold their inclusive education beliefs that they can provide high-quality inclusive education for each student, and improve their professional competence of inclusive education in the three aspects of emotion, knowledge, and action.

Inclusive education beliefs serve as a fundamental aspect of IE teachers’ professionalism, shaping IE teachers’ behaviors and informing IE teachers’ teaching practices (Dignath et al., 2022; Sun et al., 2022). At present, research indicated that there is considerable potential to enhance the overall inclusive education beliefs of IE teachers in China (Xin et al., 2022). Thus, it is essential for IE teachers to maintain strong inclusive education beliefs in their ability to promote the learning of all students. At the same time, IE teachers should further develop their professional competence of inclusive education by comprehensive approaches.

First, from an emotional perspective, IE teachers need to have the confidence to teach all students competently in inclusive classrooms. This enables IE teachers to actively learn and flexibly apply different teaching methods and relevant support strategies to meet students’ diverse needs (Liu & Xu, 2023). Second, best practice and knowledge in the inclusive education is constantly evolving. Therefore, from a cognitive perspective, it is essential for IE teachers to actively engage in professional development courses, seminars, and research projects related to inclusive education to keep abreast of the latest trends and research findings (Mao et al., 2022). This development process may involve various disciplines, such as special education, psychology, and rehabilitation therapy. Therefore, IE teachers should also actively seek support and advice from other professionals to improve their knowledge and skills. Third, the improvement of professional competence of IE teacher relies on their interactions and communication with students (Liang et al., 2020). Consequently, IE teachers need to build quality teacher-student relationships in practice, genuinely care about the holistic development of the student, and have their professional development driven by the needs of the students. In short, IE teachers need to first focus on specific problems in reality and establish the right emotional, cognitional, and positive behavioral initiatives through a variety of ways and channels. These strategies could enable IE teachers to become discoverers, thinkers, and innovators in inclusive education.

Fostering multi-stakeholder collaboration

In addition, the practical implications of the IPAA also emphasize the importance of IE teachers working together with others. Therefore, to improve the professional competence of IE teachers in China, it is also necessary for IE teachers to raise their personal subjective awareness and strengthen their ability to work together, which facilitates the joint involvement of the family, school, and community.

The successful implementation of inclusive education requires collaborative efforts from multiple stakeholders, including teachers, parents, caregivers, special education professionals, and rehabilitation therapists (Florian, 2014). Teacher collaboration, in particular, is widely recognized as an essential component for the successful implementation of inclusive education (Moosa & Bekker, 2021). Therefore, IE teachers need to foster a sense of collaboration with others.

First, the advancement of inclusive education relies on the convergence of medical rehabilitation, information technology, and special education (Zhang & Deng, 2022). IE teachers can actively form interdisciplinary teams with professionals such as special education teachers, resource teachers, psychologists, rehabilitation therapists, and others to seek support (Shen, 2024). This collaboration is beneficial for creating and implementing scientific education and support plans. Additionally, the team can share teaching methods, educational technology tools, and best practices to improve the teaching skills, curriculum adjustments, and classroom management skills of IE teachers (Wang et al., 2023). Second, in the process of inclusive practice, IE teachers need to advocate for the active involvement of the school system and promote the participation and collaboration of families, communities, and society. These measures can establish a tripartite collaborative relationship model among families, schools, and communities (Zhang et al., 2023). This model helps overcome limitations associated with geographical and educational scene constraints. Moreover, it incorporates comprehensive inclusive practices into the entire developmental process and various contexts for students with disabilities (Alduais & Deng, 2022; Li et al., 2023). Third, IE teachers should actively seek collaboration and establish stable relationships with external support, serving as advocates, coordinators, and facilitators in the collaborative relationships between families, schools, and communities.

Tailoring solutions to the local contexts

From the perspective of formation backgrounds of IPAA, it originated from the dilemmas faced by IE teachers in developing an inclusive philosophy and implementing inclusive practices. The same principle also holds true for the development of IE teachers in China. When utilizing IPAA to enhance the competence of IE teachers, it is essential to anchor our initiatives in our local context and cultivate IE teachers with attributes that are tailored to our unique local practices.

On the one hand, while the IPAA is deeply rooted in Western society and culture, it has not yet been fully adapted to the Chinese soil. Therefore, the applicability and effectiveness of IPAA in enhancing the professional competence of IE teachers in China should be examined in the future research and practice. Specifically, researchers and practitioners should first tailor the implementation strategies of IPAA to align with China’s cultural context, incorporating insights from experts. Secondly, IPAA should be integrated into training programs aimed at improving IE teachers’ professional competence in practice, employing before-and-after comparative studies to assess the effect of IPAA on teachers’ professional development. Subsequently researchers should integrate teachers’ feedback and practical experiences to refine the implementation strategies of IPAA (Florian & Spratt, 2013). Finally, the cross-regional and cross-school empirical studies should be conducted to collect and analyze the application of IPAA in various regions and school contexts in China (Klibthong & Agbenyega, 2018). Additionally, a long-term follow-up research project is necessary to monitor the impact of IPAA on improving the professional competence of IE teachers and the quality of IE development.

On the other hand, when applying the IPAA to IE teachers’ professional development in China, it is crucial to consider the unique characteristics of China’s inclusive education. Firstly, during the localization of inclusive education, the practice emphasizing the collectivist value orientation and the concept of special care education has been developed (Wang et al., 2022b). Therefore, IE teachers should focus on cultivating and encouraging students’ collectivism and humanitarianism through activities like thematic class meetings, inclusion courses, and extracurricular inclusion activities (Wang et al., 2022b). This will help build a positive atmosphere between typically developing students and students with disabilities, thereby strengthening teachers’ practical skills in inclusion activities. Secondly, IE teachers also need to address the specific problems of inclusive practice in China and continue to explore localized and appropriate solutions. Specifically, IE teachers in China still face issues such as poor quality of training (Deng & Zhao, 2019), teaching activities, and cooperation with home and school (Yang et al., 2022). Therefore, they could seek assistance from localized literature and policy guidelines related to inclusion education, pedagogical methods promoted by inclusion schools, as well as resource teachers, special education experts, and other relevant teachers or professionals to address any current issues.

Overall, in the process of improving IE teachers’ professional competence, IE teachers need to be objective about the unique characteristics of inclusive education in China, critically leverage the advanced practical experience, and actively tailor solutions to address the developmental challenges faced by IE teachers in real educational scenarios, to develop an excellent IE teaching force with Chinese characteristics.