Emotion Regulation During the COVID-19 Pandemic and Its Association With Depression and Anxiety: A Systematic Review

Abstract

The COVID-19 pandemic increased the global prevalence of depression and anxiety, and emotion regulation (ER) was a key risk or protective factor for symptoms. In this systematic review, we explore the association between ER and depressive and/or anxious symptoms during the pandemic. We examined a range of ER strategies and considered whether their adaptiveness varied across contexts (e.g., cultures). We also investigated whether ER moderated the association between pandemic-related stress and symptoms. In addition, we assessed whether ER mediated this association. Of the 504 identified articles, 47 articles from countries worldwide met eligibility criteria. We found that traditionally maladaptive ER strategies were associated with greater symptoms and that findings for traditionally adaptive strategies were mixed. ER strategies also played a role in the link between pandemic-related stress and symptoms. This review showed that ER strategies during a naturalistic global stressor have real-world implications for mental health that extend beyond geographical location or culture.

Keywords

emotion regulation COVID-19 stress anxiety depression preregistration

Get full access to this article

View all access options for this article.

References

Abela

J. R. Z.

Hankin

B. L.

(2011). Rumination as a vulnerability factor to depression during the transition from early to middle adolescence: A multiwave longitudinal study. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 120(2), 259–271. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0022796

Abramson

L. Y.

Metalsky

G. I.

Alloy

L. B.

(1989). Hopelessness depression: A theory-based subtype of depression. Psychological Review, 96, 358–372.

Ahorsu

D. K.

Lin

C. Y.

Imani

Saffari

Griffiths

M. D.

Pakpour

A. H.

(2020). The fear of COVID-19 scale: Development and initial validation. International Journal of Mental Health and Addiction, 20, 1537–1545. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11469-020-00270-8

Akbari

Seydavi

Hosseini

Z. S.

Krafft

Levin

M. E.

(2022). Experiential avoidance in depression, anxiety, obsessive-compulsive related, and posttraumatic stress disorders: A comprehensive systematic review and meta-analysis. Journal of Contextual Behavioral Science, 234, 65–78. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jcbs.2022.03.007

Akbari

Spada

M. M.

Nikcˇević

A. V.

Zamani

(2021). The relationship between fear of COVID-19 and health anxiety among families with COVID-19 infected: The mediating role of metacognitions, intolerance of uncertainty and emotion regulation. Clinical Psychology and Psychotherapy, 28(6), 1354–1366. https://doi.org/10.1002/cpp.2628

Aldao

Nolen-Hoeksema

Schweizer

(2010). Emotion-regulation strategies across psychopathology: A meta-analytic review. Clinical Psychology Review, 30(2), 217–237. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cpr.2009.11.004

Aldao

Sheppes

Gross

J. J.

(2015). Emotion regulation flexibility. Cognitive Therapy and Research, 39(3), 263–278. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10608-014-9662-4

American Psychiatric Association. (2013). Diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders (5th ed.).

Armijo-Olivo

Stiles

C. R.

Hagen

N. A.

Biondo

P. D.

Cummings

G. G.

(2012). Assessment of study quality for systematic reviews: A comparison of the Cochrane Collaboration Risk of Bias Tool and the Effective Public Health Practice Project Quality Assessment Tool: Methodological research. Journal of Evaluation in Clinical Practice, 18(1), 12–18. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1365-2753.2010.01516.x

10.

Bastin

Vanhalst

Raes

Bijttebier

(2018). Co-brooding and co-reflection as differential predictors of depressive symptoms and friendship quality in adolescents: Investigating the moderating role of gender. Journal of Youth and Adolescence, 47, 1037–1051. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10964-017-0746-9

11.

Battaglini

A. M.

Rnic

Jameson

Jopling

Albert

A. Y.

LeMoult

(2022). The association of emotion regulation flexibility and negative and positive affect in daily life. Affective Science, 3(3), 673–685. https://doi.org/10.1007/s42761-022-00132-7

12.

Battaglini

A. M.

Rnic

Jameson

Jopling

LeMoult

(2023). Interpersonal emotion regulation flexibility: Effects on affect in daily life. Emotion, 23(4), 1048–1060. https://doi.org/10.1037/emo0001132

13.

Battaglini

A. M.

Zareian

LeMoult

(2025). Intra- versus interpersonal emotion regulation: Associations with affect, relationship quality and closeness, and biological markers of stress. Journal of Experimental Psychology: General, 154(7), 2027–2042. https://doi.org/10.1037/xge0001757

14.

Berenbaum

Raghavan

H. N.

Vernon

L. L.

Gomez

J. J.

(2003). A taxonomy of emotional disturbances. Clinical Psychology: Science and Practice, 10(2), 206–226. https://doi.org/10.1093/clipsy.bpg011.

15.

Bonanno

G. A.

Burton

C. L.

(2013). Regulatory flexibility: An individual differences perspective on coping and emotion regulation. Perspectives on Psychological Science, 8(6), 591–612. https://doi.org/10.1177/1745691613504116

16.

Braet

Giletta

Wante

Van Beveren

M. L.

Verbeken

Goossens

Lomeo

Anslot

Braet

(2022). The relationship between perceived stress and depressive symptoms in adolescents during high stress: The moderating role of emotion regulation. Journal of Adolescence, 94(8), 1179–1187. https://doi.org/10.1002/jad.12091

17.

Brenning

Waterschoot

Dieleman

Morbée

Vermote

Soenens

Van der Kaap-Deeder

van den Bogaard

Vansteenkiste

(2023). The role of emotion regulation in mental health during the COVID-19 outbreak: A 10-wave longitudinal study. Stress and Health, 39(3), 562–575. https://doi.org/10.1002/smi.3204

18.

Carver

C. S.

Scheier

M. F.

(1981). Attention and self-regulation: A control-theory approach to human behavior. Springer.

19.

Carver

C. S.

Scheier

M. F.

Weintraub

J. K.

(1989). Assessing coping strategies: A theoretically based approach. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 56(2), 267–283. https://doi.org/10.1037//0022-3514.56.2.267

20.

Chang

M. X. L.

Jetten

Cruwys

Haslam

(2017). Cultural identity and the expression of depression: A social identity perspective. Journal of Community and Applied Social Psychology, 27(1), 16–34. https://doi.org/10.1002/casp.2291

21.

Chen

Cohen

Chen

(2010). How big is a big odds ratio? Interpreting the magnitudes of odds ratios in epidemiological studies. Communications in Statistics—Simulation and Computation, 39(4), 860–864. https://doi.org/10.1080/03610911003650383

22.

Clark

L. A.

Watson

(1991). Tripartite model of anxiety and depression: Psychometric evidence and taxonomic implications. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 100(3), 316–336. https://doi.org/10.1037/0021-843X.100.3.316

23.

Cohen

(1988). Statistical power analysis for the behavioral sciences (2nd ed.). Psychology Press.

24.

Cohen

Kamarck

Mermelstein

(1983). A global measure of perceived stress. Journal of Health and Social Behavior, 24, 386–396. https://doi.org/10.2307/2136404

25.

Dawel

Shou

Gulliver

Cherbuin

Banfield

Murray

Calear

A. L.

Morse

A. R.

Farrer

L. M.

Smithson

(2021). Cause or symptom? A longitudinal test of bidirectional relationships between emotion regulation strategies and mental health symptoms. Emotion, 21(7), 1511–1521. https://doi.org/10.1037/emo0001018

26.

Demaray

M. K.

Ogg

J. A.

Malecki

C. K.

Styck

K. M.

(2022). COVID-19 stress and coping and associations with internalizing problems in 4th through 12th grade students. School Psychology Review, 51(2), 150–169. https://doi.org/10.1080/2372966X.2020.1869498

27.

Dimanova

Borbás

Schnider

C. B.

Fehlbaum

L. V.

Raschle

N. M.

(2022). Prefrontal cortical thickness, emotion regulation strategy use and COVID-19 mental health. Social Cognitive and Affective Neuroscience, 17, 877–889. https://doi.org/10.1093/scan/nsac018

28.

Donovan

N. J.

Blazer

(2020). Social isolation and loneliness in older adults: Review and commentary of a national academies report. The American Journal of Geriatric Psychiatry, 28(12), 1233–1244. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jagp.2020.08.005

29.

Dryman

M. T.

Heimberg

R. G.

(2018). Emotion regulation in social anxiety and depression: A systematic review of expressive suppression and cognitive reappraisal. Clinical Psychology Review, 65, 17–42. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cpr.2018.07.004

30.

Duan

Shao

Wang

Huang

Miao

Yang

Zhu

(2020). An investigation of mental health status of children and adolescents in China during the outbreak of COVID-19. Journal of Affective Disorders, 275, 112–118. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jad.2020.06.029

31.

Dubey

Podder

Pandey

(2020). Knowledge of COVID-19 and its influence on mindfulness, cognitive emotion regulation and psychological flexibility in the Indian community. Frontiers in Psychology, 11, Article 589365. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2020.589365

32.

Duttweiler

H. R.

Sheena

M. K.

Burkhouse

K. L.

Feurer

(2022). The effects of rumination on internalising symptoms in the context of the COVID-19 pandemic among mothers and their offspring: A brief report. Cognition and Emotion, 36(1), 92–99. https://doi.org/10.1080/02699931.2021.1995330

33.

D’Zurilla

T. J.

Goldfried

M. R.

(1971). Problem solving and behavior modification. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 78(1), 107–126. https://doi.org/10.1037/h0031360

34.

El Keshky

M. E. S.

Alsabban

A. M.

Basyouni

S. S

. (2021). The psychological and social impacts on personal stress for residents quarantined for COVID-19 in Saudi Arabia. Archives of Psychiatric Nursing, 35(3), 311–316. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.apnu.2020.09.008

35.

Ferreira

F. O.

Lopes-Silva

J. B.

Siquara

G. M.

Manfroi

E. C.

de Freitas

P. M.

(2021). Coping in the Covid-19 pandemia: How different resources and strategies can be risk or protective factors to mental health in the Brazilian population. Health Psychology and Behavioral Medicine, 9(1), 182–205. https://doi.org/10.1080/21642850.2021.1897595

36.

Fey

C. F.

Delios

(2023). The measurement and communication of effect sizes in management research. Management and Organization Review, 19(1), 176–197. https://doi.org/10.1017/mor.2022.2

37.

Fluharty

Steptoe

Fancourt

. (2021). Coping strategies and mental health trajectories during the first 21 weeks of COVID-19 lockdown in the United Kingdom. Social Science and Medicine, 279, Article 113958. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.socscimed.2021.113958

38.

Fukase

Ichikura

Murase

Tagaya

(2021). Depression, risk factors, and coping strategies in the context of social dislocations resulting from the second wave of COVID-19 in Japan. BMC Psychiatry, 21(1), Article 33. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12888-021-03047-y

39.

GBD 2019 Mental Disorders Collaborators. (2022). Global, regional, and national burden of 12 mental disorders in 204 countries and territories, 1990–2019: A systematic analysis for the Global Burden of Disease Study 2019. The Lancet Psychiatry, 9(2), 137–150. https://doi.org/10.1016/S2215-0366(21)00395-3

40.

Grasso

D. J.

Briggs-Gowan

M. J.

Carter

A. S.

Goldstein

Ford

J. D.

(2020). A person-centered approach to profiling COVID-related experiences in the United States: Preliminary findings from the epidemic-pandemic impacts inventory (EPII). PsyArXiv. https://doi.org/10.31234/osf.io/v36hj

41.

Gratz

K. L.

Roemer

(2004). Multidimensional assessment of emotion regulation and dysregulation: Development, factor structure, and initial validation of the difficulties in emotion regulation scale. Journal of Psychopathology and Behavioral Assessment, 26, 41−54. https://doi.org/10.1023/B:JOBA.0000007455.08539.94

42.

Gross

J. J.

(1998). Antecedent- and response-focused emotion regulation: Divergent consequences for experience, expression, and physiology. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 74(1), 224–237. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.74.1.224

43.

Gross

J. J.

(2001). Emotion regulation in adulthood: Timing is everything. Current Directions in Psychological Science, 10(6), 214–219. https://doi.org/10.1111/1467-8721.00152

44.

Gross

J. J.

John

O. P.

(2003). Individual differences in two emotion regulation processes: Implications for affect, relationships, and well-being. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 85(2), 348–362. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.85.2.348

45.

Gross

J. J.

Muñoz

R. F.

(1995). Emotion regulation and mental health. Clinical Psychology: Science and Practice, 2(2), 151–164.

46.

Gurvich

Thomas

E. H.

Hudaib

A. R.

Sood

Fabiatos

Sutton

Isaacs

Arunogiri

Sharp

Kulkarni

(2021). Coping styles and mental health in response to societal changes during the COVID-19 pandemic. International Journal of Social Psychiatry, 67(5), 540–549. https://doi.org/10.1177/0020764020961790

47.

Hayes

S. C.

Pierson

(2005). Acceptance and commitment therapy. Springer.

48.

Hayes

S. C.

Strosahl

K. D.

Wilson

K. G.

(1999). Acceptance and commitment therapy: An experiential approach to behavior change. The Guilford Press.

49.

Zhang

Wang

Mistry

Ran

Wang

(2014). Relation between emotion regulation and mental health: A meta-analytic review. Psychological Reports, 114, 341–362. https://doi.org/10.2466/03.20.PR0.114k22w4

50.

Ingram

R. E.

Luxton

D. D.

(2005). Vulnerability-stress models. Development of Psychopathology: A Vulnerability-Stress Perspective, 46(2), 32–46.

51.

Jiang

Liu

Zhang

Feng

(2020). Mental health status of Chinese residents during the COVID-19 epidemic. BMC Psychiatry, 20(1), Article 850. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12888-020-02966-6

52.

Joiner

T. E.

Jr. Wingate

L. R.

Otamendi

(2005). An interpersonal addendum to the hopelessness theory of depression: Hopelessness as a stress and depression generator. Journal of Social and Clinical Psychology, 24, 649–664. https://doi.org/10.1521/jscp.2005.24.5.649

53.

Jose

P. E.

Weir

K. F.

(2013). How is anxiety involved in the longitudinal relationship between brooding rumination and depressive symptoms in adolescents? Journal of Youth and Adolescence, 42, 1210–1222. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10964-012-9891-3

54.

Kent

J. N.

Kilby

C. J.

(2023). Predictors of psychological distress during self-isolation. Psychology and Psychotherapy: Theory, Research and Practice, 96(1), 172–188. https://doi.org/10.1111/papt.12432

55.

Kessler

R. C.

Nelson

C. B.

McGonagle

K. A.

Liu

Swartz

Blazer

D. G.

(1996). Comorbidity of DSM–III–R major depressive disorder in the general population: Results from the US National Comorbidity Survey. The British Journal of Psychiatry, 168(S30), 17–30.

56.

Kluwe-Schiavon

De Zorzi

Meireles

Leite

Sequeira

Carvalho

(2022). The psychological impact of the COVID-19 pandemic in Portugal: The role of personality traits and emotion regulation strategies. PLOS ONE, 17(6), Article e0269496. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0269496

57.

Kross

Ayduk

(2008). Facilitating adaptive emotional analysis: Distinguishing distanced-analysis of depressive experiences from immersed-analysis and distraction. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 34(7), 924–938.

58.

Kuehner

Huffziger

Liebsch

(2009). Rumination, distraction and mindful self-focus: Effects on mood, dysfunctional attitudes and cortisol stress response. Psychological Medicine, 39(2), 219–228. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0033291708003553

59.

Kuhlman

K. R.

Antici

Tan

Tran

M. L.

Rodgers-Romero

E. L.

Restrepo

(2023). Predictors of adolescent resilience during the COVID-19 pandemic in a community sample of Hispanic and Latinx youth: Expressive suppression and social support. Research on Child and Adolescent Psychopathology, 51, 639–651. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10802-022-01019-8

60.

Kuhlman

K. R.

Straka

Mousavi

Tran

M. L.

Rodgers

(2021). Predictors of adolescent resilience during the COVID-19 pandemic: Cognitive reappraisal and humor. Journal of Adolescent Health, 69(5), 729–736. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jadohealth.2021.07.006

61.

Kujawa

Green

Compas

B. E.

Dickey

Pegg

(2020). Exposure to COVID-19 pandemic stress: Associations with depression and anxiety in emerging adults in the United States. Depression and Anxiety, 37, 1280–1288. https://doi.org/10.1002/.da.23109

62.

Ladouceur

C. D.

(2020). COVID-19 adolescent symptom & psychological experience questionnaire.

63.

Lazarus

R. S.

(1993). Coping theory and research: Past, present, and future. Psychosomatic Medicine, 55, 234–247.

64.

Lazarus

R. S.

Folkman

(1984). Stress, appraisal, and coping. Springer.

65.

LeMoult

Battaglini

A. M.

Grocott

Jopling

Rnic

Yang

(2023). Advances in stress and depression research. Current Opinion in Psychiatry, 36(1), 8–13. https://doi.org/10.1097/YCO.0000000000000831

66.

LeMoult

Joormann

(2014). Depressive rumination alters cortisol decline in major depressive disorder. Biological Psychology, 100(1), 50–55. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.biopsycho.2014.05.001

67.

Lenzo

Quattropani

M. C.

Sardella

Martino

Bonanno

G. A.

(2021). Depression, anxiety, and stress among healthcare workers during the COVID-19 outbreak and relationships with expressive flexibility and context sensitivity. Frontiers in Psychology, 12, Article 623033. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2021.623033

68.

Fan

Wang

Huang

(2022). Risk factors of psychological distress during the COVID-19 pandemic: The roles of coping style and emotional regulation. Journal of Affective Disorders, 299(24), 326–334. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jad.2021.12.026

69.

Lopes

A. R.

Nihei

O. K.

(2021). Depression, anxiety and stress symptoms in Brazilian university students during the COVID-19 pandemic: Predictors and association with life satisfaction, psychological well-being and coping strategies. PLOS ONE, 16(10), Article e0258493. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0258493

70.

Tsai

Chu

Xie

(2018). Is expressive suppression harmful for Chinese American breast cancer survivors? Journal of Psychosomatic Research, 109, 51–56. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jpsychores.2018.03.171

71.

Luca

(2019). Maladaptive rumination as a transdiagnostic mediator of vulnerability and outcome in psychopathology. Journal of Clinical Medicine, 8(3), Article 314. https://doi.org/10.3390/jcm8030314

72.

Maier

S. F.

Seligman

M. E.

(1976). Learned helplessness: Theory and evidence. Journal of Experimental Psychology: General, 105(1), 3–46. https://doi.org/10.1037/0096-3445.105.1.3

73.

Matsunaga

Mukai

Yamanishi

(2020). Acute impact of COVID-19 pandemic on phenomenological features in fully or partially remitted patients with obsessive–compulsive disorder. Psychiatry and Clinical Neurosciences, 74(10), 565. https://doi.org/10.1111/pcn.13119

74.

Matthews

Davies

D. R.

Stammers

R. B.

Westerman

S. J.

(2000). Human performance: Cognition, stress, and individual differences. Psychology Press.

75.

McLaughlin

K. A.

Nolen-Hoeksema

(2011). Rumination as a transdiagnostic factor in depression and anxiety. Behaviour Research and Therapy, 49(3), 186–193.

76.

Michl

L. C.

McLaughlin

K. A.

Shepherd

Nolen-Hoeksema

(2013). Rumination as a mechanism linking stressful life events to symptoms of depression and anxiety: Longitudinal evidence in early adolescents and adults. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 122(2), 339–352. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0031994

77.

Mishra

Samanta

Panigrahi

Dash

Behera

M. R.

Das

(2021). Mental health status, coping strategies during COVID-19 pandemic among undergraduate students of healthcare profession. International Journal of Mental Health and Addiction, 21(1), 562–574. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11469-021-00611-1

78.

Moriya

Takahashi

(2013). Depression and interpersonal stress: The mediating role of emotion regulation. Motivation and Emotion, 37, 600–608. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11031-012-9323-4

79.

Muñoz-Navarro

Cano Vindel

Schmitz

Cabello

Fernández-Berrocal

(2021). Emotional disorders during the COVID-19 outbreak in Spain: The role of sociodemographic risk factors and cognitive emotion regulation strategies. Health Education and Behavior, 48(4), 412–423. https://doi.org/10.1177/10901981211014101

80.

Muñoz-Navarro

Malonda

Llorca-Mestre

Cano-Vindel

Fernández-Berrocal

(2021). Worry about COVID-19 contagion and general anxiety: Moderation and mediation effects of cognitive emotion regulation. Journal of Psychiatric Research, 137, 311–318. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jpsychires.2021.03.004

81.

Naragon-Gainey

McMahon

T. P.

Chacko

T. P.

(2017). The structure of common emotion regulation strategies: A meta-analytic examination. Psychological Bulletin, 143(4), 384–427. https://doi.org/10.1037/bul0000093

82.

Niu

Taylor

M. M.

Wicks

J. J.

Fassett-Carman

A. N.

Moser

A. D.

Neilson

Peterson

E. C.

Kaiser

R. H.

Snyder

H. R.

(2023). Longitudinal relations between emotion regulation and internalizing symptoms in emerging adults during the COVID-19 pandemic. Cognitive Therapy and Research, 47(3), 350–366. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10608-023-10366-9

83.

Nolen-Hoeksema

(1991). Responses to depression and their effects on the duration of depressive episodes. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 100(4), 569–582. https://doi.org/10.1037//0021-843x.100.4.569

84.

Nolen-Hoeksema

Wisco

B. E.

Lyubomirsky

(2008). Rethinking rumination. Perspectives on Psychological Science, 3(5), 400–424.

85.

Oryan

Avinir

Levy

Kodesh

Elkana

(2021). Risk and protective factors for psychological distress during COVID-19 in Israel. Current Psychology, 42(3), 2448–2459. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12144-021-02031-9

86.

Page

M. J.

McKenzie

J. E.

Bossuyt

P. M.

Boutron

Hoffmann

T. C.

Mulrow

C. D.

Moher

(2021). The PRISMA 2020 statement: An updated guideline for reporting systematic reviews. International Journal of Surgery, 88, Article 105906. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijsu.2021.105906

87.

Park

C. L.

Finkelstein-Fox

Russell

B. S.

Fendrich

Hutchison

Becker

(2021). Americans’ distress early in the COVID-19 pandemic: Protective resources and coping strategies. Psychological Trauma: Theory, Research, Practice, and Policy, 13(4), 422–431. https://doi.org/10.1037/tra0000931

88.

Park

R. J.

Goodyer

I. M.

Teasdale

J. D.

(2004). Effects of induced rumination and distraction on mood and overgeneral autobiographical memory in adolescent major depressive disorder and controls. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 45(5), 996–1006.

89.

Penley

J. A.

Tomaka

Wiebe

J. S.

(2002). The association of coping to physical and psychological health outcomes: A meta-analytic review. Journal of Behavioral Medicine, 25, 551–603. https://doi.org/10.1023/A:1020641400589

90.

Prout

T. A.

Zilcha-Mano

Aafjes-van Doorn

Békés

Christman-Cohen

Whistler

Kui

Di Giuseppe

(2020). Identifying predictors of psychological distress during COVID-19: A machine learning approach. Frontiers in Psychology, 11, Article 586202. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2020.586202

91.

Rolin

S. N.

Flis

Davis

J. J.

(2022). Work coping, stress appraisal, and psychological resilience: Reaction to the COVID-19 pandemic among health care providers. Psychology and Neuroscience, 15(2), 131–146. https://doi.org/10.1037/pne0000257

92.

Romm

K. F.

Park

Y. W.

Hughes

J. L.

Gentzler

A. L.

(2021). Risk and protective factors for changes in adolescent psychosocial adjustment during COVID-19. Journal of Research on Adolescence, 31(3), 546–559. https://doi.org/10.1111/jora.12667

93.

Rood

Roelofs

Bögels

S. M.

Nolen-Hoeksema

Schouten

(2009). The influence of emotion-focused rumination and distraction on depressive symptoms in non-clinical youth: A meta-analytic review. Clinical Psychology Review, 29(7), 607–616. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cpr.2009.07.001

94.

Rose

A. J.

(2002). Co–rumination in the friendships of girls and boys. Child Development, 73(6), 1830–1843. https://doi.org/10.1111/1467-8624.00509

95.

Rosenthal

(1979). The file drawer problem and tolerance for null results. Psychological Bulletin, 86(3), 638–641. https://doi.org/10.1037/0033-2909.86.3.638

96.

Ruiz

DiFonte

Musella

Flannery-Schroeder

(2020). 51.21 The relationship between COVID-19 life disruptions and anxiety severity. Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 59(10), Article S257. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jaac.2020.08.431

97.

Sacchi

Dan-Glauser

(2021). Never too late to plan: “Refocus on planning” as an effective way to lower symptoms and difficulties in emotion regulation during the COVID-19 first lockdown. Emotion, 21(7), 1483–1498. https://doi.org/10.1037/emo0001039

98.

Salari

Hosseinian-Far

Jalali

Vaisi-Raygani

Rasoulpoor

Mohammadi

Khaledi-Paveh

(2020). Prevalence of stress, anxiety, depression among the general population during the COVID-19 pandemic: A systematic review and meta-analysis. Globalization and Health, 16(1), Article 57. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12992-020-00589-w

99.

Sanders-Phillips

(1996). Correlates of health promotion behaviors in low-income Black women and Latinas. American Journal of Preventive Medicine, 12(6), 450–458. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0749-3797(18)30267-8

100.

Schachter

Ajayi

A. A.

Nguyen

P. L.

(2022). The moderating and mediating roles of mindfulness and rumination on COVID-19 stress and depression: A longitudinal study of young adults. Journal of Counseling Psychology, 69(5), 732–744. https://doi.org/10.1037/cou0000626

101.

Schmidt

(2011). Mindfulness in East and West – Is it the same? In Walach

Schmidt

Jonas

(Eds.), Neuroscience, consciousness and spirituality (pp. 28–38). Springer. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-94-007-2079-4_2

102.

Schoofs

Hermans

Raes

(2010). Brooding and reflection as subtypes of rumination: Evidence from confirmatory factor analysis in nonclinical samples using the Dutch Ruminative Response Scale. Journal of Psychopathology and Behavioral Assessment, 32, 609–617. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10862-010-9182-9

103.

Shen

Park-Taylor

(2022). The effects of cataclysm-related stress on rumination patterns: The case of COVID-19. Professional Psychology: Research and Practice, 53(6), 631–639. https://doi.org/10.1037/pro0000478

104.

Sheppes

Scheibe

Suri

Radu

Blechert

Gross

J. J.

(2014). Emotion regulation choice: A conceptual framework and supporting evidence. Journal of Experimental Psychology: General, 143(1), 163–181. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0030831

105.

Siddaway

A. P.

Wood

A. M.

Hedges

L. V.

(2019). How to do a systematic review: A best practice guide to conducting and reporting narrative reviews, meta-analyses, and meta-syntheses. Annual Review of Psychology, 70, 747–770.

106.

Soto

J. A.

Perez

C. R.

Kim

Lee

E. A.

Minnick

M. R.

(2011). Is expressive suppression always associated with poorer psychological functioning? A cross-cultural comparison between European Americans and Hong Kong Chinese. Emotion, 11, 1450–1455. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0023340

107.

Sotola

L. K.

(2022). Garbage in, garbage out? Evaluating the evidentiary value of published meta-analyses using z-curve analysis. Collabra: Psychology, 8(1), Article 32571. https://doi.org/10.1525/collabra.32571

108.

Spendelow

J. S.

Simonds

L. M.

Avery

R. E.

(2017). The relationship between co-rumination and internalizing problems: A systematic review and meta-analysis. Clinical Psychology and Psychotherapy, 24(2), 512–527. https://doi.org/10.1002/cpp.2023

109.

Squire

L. R.

(1994). Memory and forgetting: Long-term and gradual changes in memory storage. International Review of Neurobiology, 37, 243–269.

110.

Squires

S. D.

Milev

R. V.

Poppenk

(2022). The impact of non-infection pandemic stress on depression and anxiety severity: Investigating mediation by intrusive and deliberate rumination. Journal of Affective Disorders, 310, 291–295. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jad.2022.05.039

111.

Starr

L. R.

Huang

Scarpulla

(2021). Does it help to talk about it? Co-rumination, internalizing symptoms, and committed action during the COVID-19 global pandemic. Journal of Contextual Behavioral Science, 21, 187–195. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jcbs.2021.07.004

112.

Strutt

P. A.

Johnco

C. J.

Chen

Muir

Maurice

Dawes

Siette

Botelho Dias

Hillebrandt

Wuthrich

V. M.

(2022). Stress and coping in older Australians during COVID-19: Health, service utilization, grandparenting, and technology use. Clinical Gerontologist, 45(1), 106–119. https://doi.org/10.1080/07317115.2021.1884158

113.

Taylor

M. M.

Wicks

J. J.

Fassett-Carman

A. N.

Snyder

H. R.

(2022). Differences in depression, anxiety, and coping in emerging adults prior to versus during the COVID-19 pandemic. Translational Issues in Psychological Science, 8(3), 431–439. https://doi.org/10.1037/tps0000310

114.

Teng

C. C.

Hon

Wang

Tsai

(2023). Impact of COVID-19 discrimination fear on psychological distress among East Asian college students: The moderating role of emotion regulation. American Journal of Orthopsychiatry, 93(1), 86–96. https://doi.org/10.1037/ort0000659

115.

Thomas

B. H.

Ciliska

Dobbins

Micucci

(2004). A process for systematically reviewing the literature: Providing the research evidence for public health nursing interventions. Worldviews on Evidence-Based Nursing, 1(3), 176–184. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1524-475X.2004.04006.x

116.

Thomas

Alkatheeri

Grey

(2021). Cognitive vulnerability and depressive symptoms among Emirati college students before and after the enactment of COVID-19 curfew and home-learning measures. International Journal of Psychology and Psychological Therapy, 21(1), 75–79.

117.

Treynor

Gonzalez

Nolen-Hoeksema

(2003). Rumination reconsidered: A psychometric analysis. Cognitive Therapy and Research, 27, 247–259. https://doi.org/10.1023/A:1023910315561

118.

Troy

A. S.

Mauss

I. B.

(2011). Resilience in the face of stress: Emotion regulation as a protective factor. Resilience and Mental Health: Challenges Across the Lifespan, 1(2), 30–44.

119.

Troy

A. S.

Shallcross

A. J.

Mauss

I. B.

(2013). A person-by-situation approach to emotion regulation: Cognitive reappraisal can either help or hurt, depending on the context. Psychological Science, 24(12), 2505–2514. https://doi.org/10.1177/0956797613496434

120.

Tsai

Weiss

Kim

J. H.

Lau

A. S.

(2021). Longitudinal relations between emotion restraint values, life stress, and internalizing symptoms among Vietnamese American and European American adolescents. Journal of Clinical Child and Adolescent Psychology, 50(5), 565–578. https://doi.org/10.1080/15374416.2019.1650364

121.

Urry

H. L.

Gross

J. J.

(2010). Emotion regulation in older age. Current Directions in Psychological Science, 19(6), 352–357.

122.

Usher

Jackson

Durkin

Gyamfi

Bhullar

(2020). Pandemic-related behaviours and psychological outcomes; a rapid literature review to explain COVID-19 behaviours. International Journal of Mental Health Nursing, 29(6), 1018–1034. https://doi.org/10.1111/inm.12790

123.

Van Ameringen

Patterson

Turna

Lethbridge

Goldman Bergmann

Lamberti

Rahat

Sideris

Francisco

A. P.

Fineberg

Pallanti

Grassi

Vismara

Albert

Gedanke Shavitt

Hollander

Feusner

Rodriguez

C. I.

Morgado

Dell’Osso

. (2022). Obsessive-compulsive disorder during the COVID-19 pandemic. Journal of Psychiatric Research, 149, 114–123. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jpsychires.2022.02.001

124.

Venanzi

Dickey

Green

Pegg

Benningfield

M. M.

Bettis

A. H.

Blackford

J. U.

Kujawa

(2022). Longitudinal predictors of depression, anxiety, and alcohol use following COVID-19-related stress. Stress and Health, 38(4), 679–691. https://doi.org/10.1002/smi.3125

125.

Wang

Q. Q.

Fang

Y. Y.

Huang

H. L.

W. J.

Wang

X. X.

Yang

T. T.

Yuan

J. M.

Gao

Qian

R. L.

Zhang

Y. H.

(2021). Anxiety, depression and cognitive emotion regulation strategies in Chinese nurses during the COVID-19 outbreak. Journal of Nursing Management, 29(5), 1263–1274. https://doi.org/10.1111/jonm.13265

126.

Waterschoot

Morbée

Vermote

Brenning

Flamant

Vansteenkiste

Soenens

(2023). Emotion regulation in times of COVID-19: A person-centered approach based on self-determination theory. Current Psychology, 42, 20211–20225. Advance online publication. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12144-021-02623-5

127.

World Health Organization. (2021). The true death toll of COVID-19: Estimating global excess mortality. https://www.who.int/data/stories/the-true-death-toll-of-covid-19-estimating-global-excess-mortality

128.

World Health Organization. (2022). COVID-19 pandemic triggers 25% increase in prevalence of anxiety and depression worldwide. https://www.who.int/news/item/02-03-2022-covid-19-pandemic-triggers-25-increase-in-prevalence-of-anxiety-and-depression-worldwide

129.

Zhang

Liu

Shao

Peng

(2020). Cognitive reappraisal and the association between perceived stress and anxiety symptoms in COVID-19 isolated people. Frontiers in Psychiatry, 11, Article 858. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyt.2020.00858

130.

Yang

(2021). Coping strategies, cyberbullying behaviors, and depression among Chinese netizens during the COVID-19 pandemic: A web-based nationwide survey. Journal of Affective Disorders, 281, 138–144. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jad.2020.12.023

131.

Yang

Zhao

Fang

Elhai

J. D.

(2023). Relations between anxiety sensitivity’s cognitive concerns and anxiety severity: Brooding and reflection as serial multiple mediators. Current Psychology, 42(11), 9218–9224. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12144-021-02195-4

132.

Yuan

Liu

Ding

Yang

(2014). The regulation of induced depression during a frustrating situation: Benefits of expressive suppression in Chinese individuals. PLOS ONE, 9, Article e97420. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0097420

133.

Zhu

Wang

(2021). An evaluation of mental health and emotion regulation experienced by undergraduate nursing students in China during the COVID-19 pandemic: A cross-sectional study. International Journal of Mental Health Nursing, 30(5), 1160–1169. https://doi.org/10.1111/inm.12867

Supplementary Material

Please find the following supplemental material available below.

For Open Access articles published under a Creative Commons License, all supplemental material carries the same license as the article it is associated with.

For non-Open Access articles published, all supplemental material carries a non-exclusive license, and permission requests for re-use of supplemental material or any part of supplemental material shall be sent directly to the copyright owner as specified in the copyright notice associated with the article.

0.00 MB

0.02 MB