We used Swedish national-register data (N = 2,828,777) to examine divorce and its associated patterns of family genetic-risk scores (FGRSs; personalized measures of genetic risk inferred from diagnoses in relatives) across 10 psychiatric disorders: major depression, anxiety disorders, obsessive compulsive disorder, bipolar disorder, schizophrenia, anorexia nervosa, alcohol use disorder, drug use disorder, attention-deficit/hyperactive disorder, and autism spectrum disorder. Individuals who divorced had elevated FGRSs across all disorders compared with individuals who were stably married or never married. FGRSs for all disorders were higher among divorced females compared with divorced males and among individuals who did not go on to have a stable second marriage compared with individuals who had a stable second marriage and increased as the cumulative number of divorces increased. In summary, genetic predispositions for psychiatric disorders are associated with the propensity to divorce and with several differences as a function of sex, remarriage, and the cumulative number of divorce transitions.
AbdellaouiA.DolanC. V.VerweijK. J. H.NivardM. G. (2022). Gene-environment correlations across geographic regions affect genome-wide association studies. Nature Genetics, 54(9), 1345–1354. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41588-022-01158-0
2.
AgerboE.ByrneM.EatonW. W.MortensenP. B. (2004). Marital and labor market status in the long run in schizophrenia. Archives of General Psychiatry, 61(1), 28–33. https://doi.org/10.1001/archpsyc.61.1.28
3.
AnderssonG. (1995). Divorce-risk trends in Sweden 1971–1993. European Journal of Population, 11, 293–311.
4.
AnderssonG. (1997). The impact of children on divorce risks of Swedish women. European Journal of Population, 13, 109–145. https://doi.org/10.1023/A:1005803001129
5.
AnderssonG.ObucinaO.ScottK. (2015). Marriage and divorce of immigrants and descendants of immigrants in Sweden. Demographic Research, 33, 31–64. https://doi.org/10.4054/DemRes.2015.33.2
6.
AndreevaV. A.TavolacciM. P.GalanP.LadnerJ.BuscailC.PeneauS.GalmicheM.HercbergS.DechelotteP.JuliaC. (2019). Sociodemographic correlates of eating disorder subtypes among men and women in France, with a focus on age. Journal of Epidemiology and Community Health, 73(1), 56–64. https://doi.org/10.1136/jech-2018-210745
7.
BloomB. L.AsherS. J.WhiteS. W. (1978). Marital disruption as a stressor: A review and analysis. Psychological Bulletin, 85(4), 867–894.
8.
BloomB. L.CaldwellR. A. (1981). Sex differences in adjustment during the process of marital separation. Journal of Marriage and Family, 43(3), 693–701.
9.
BramlettM. D.MosherW. D. (2002). Cohabitation, marriage, divorce, and remarriage in the United States (Series 23). National Center for Health Statistics.
10.
BreslauJ.MillerE.JinR.SampsonN. A.AlonsoJ.AndradeL. H.BrometE. J.de GirolamoG.DemyttenaereK.FayyadJ.FukaoA.GalaonM.GurejeO.HeY.HinkovH. R.HuC.Kovess-MasfetyV.MatschingerH.Medina-MoraM. E.. . . KesslerR. C. (2011). A multinational study of mental disorders, marriage, and divorce. Acta Psychiatrica Scandinavica, 124(6), 474–486. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1600-0447.2011.01712.x
11.
BrodyG. H.NeubaumE.ForehandR. (1988). Serial marriage: A heuristic analysis of an emerging family form. Psychological Bulletin, 103(2), 211–222. https://doi.org/10.1037/0033-2909.103.2.211
12.
BrometE.AndradeL. H.HwangI.SampsonN. A.AlonsoJ.de GirolamoG.de GraafR.DemyttenaereK.HuC.IwataN.KaramA. N.KaurJ.KostyuchenkoS.LepineJ. P.LevinsonD.MatschingerH.MoraM. E.BrowneM. O.Posada-VillaJ.. . . KesslerR. C. (2011). Cross-national epidemiology of DSM-IV major depressive episode. BMC Medicine, 9, Article 90. https://doi.org/10.1186/1741-7015-9-90
13.
de ZwaanM.GrussB.MullerA.GraapH.MartinA.GlaesmerH.HilbertA.PhilipsenA. (2012). The estimated prevalence and correlates of adult ADHD in a German community sample. European Archives of Psychiatry and Clinical Neuroscience, 262(1), 79–86. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00406-011-0211-9
14.
D’OnofrioB. M.TurkheimerE.EmeryR. E.HardenK. P.SlutskeW. S.HeathA. C.MaddenP. A. F.MartinN. G. (2007). A genetically informed study of the intergenerational transmission of marital instability. Journal of Marriage and Family, 69(3), 793–809. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1741-3737.2007.00406.x
Dybdahl KrebsM.AppaduraiV.HellbergK.-L. G.OhlssonH.SteinbachJ.PetersenE.WergeT.SundquistJ.SundquistK.CaiN.ZaitlenN.DahlA.VilhjalmssonB.FlintJ.BacanuS.-A.SchorkA. J.KendlerK. S. (2023). The relationship between genotype- and phenotype-based estimates of genetic liability to human psychiatric disorders, in practice and in theory. medRxiv. https://doi.org/10.1101/2023.06.19.23291606
17.
Dybdahl KrebsM.Georgii HellbergK.-L.LundbergM.AppaduraiV.OhlssonH.PedersenE. M.SteinbachJ.MatthewsJ.LaBiancaS.Calle SanchezX.MeijsenJ.IngassonA.Buil DemurA.VilhjalmssonB. J.FlintJ.BacanuS.-A.CaiN.DahlA. W.ZaitlenN.. . . SchorkA. (2023). PA-FGRS is a novel estimator of pedigree-based genetic liability that complements genotype-based inferences into the genetic architecture of major depressive disorder. medRxiv. https://doi.org/10.1101/2023.06.23.23291611
18.
EdwardsA. C.Larsson LonnS.SundquistJ.KendlerK. S.SundquistK. (2018). Associations between divorce and onset of drug abuse in a Swedish national sample. American Journal of Epidemiology, 187(5), 1010–1018. https://doi.org/10.1093/aje/kwx321
Galbaud du FortG.BlandR. C.NewmanS. C.BoothroydL. J. (1998). Spouse similarity for lifetime psychiatric history in the general population. Psychological Medicine, 28(4), 789–802. https://doi.org/10.1017/s0033291798006795
21.
GoveW. R. (1972). The relationship between sex roles, marital status, and mental illness. Social Forces, 51(1), 34–44.
22.
JensenT. M.SannerC. (2021). A scoping review of research on well-being across diverse family structures: Rethinking approaches for understanding contemporary families. Journal of Family Theory & Review, 13(4), 463–495. https://doi.org/10.1111/jftr.12437
23.
JockinV.McGueM.LykkenD. T. (1996). Personality and divorce: A genetic analysis. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 71(2), 288–299. https://doi.org/10.1037//0022-3514.71.2.288
24.
JoelS.EastwickP. W.AllisonC. J.ArriagaX. B.BakerZ. G.Bar-KalifaE.BergeronS.BirnbaumG. E.BrockR. L.BrumbaughC. C.CarmichaelC. L.ChenS.ClarkeJ.CobbR. J.CoolsenM. K.DavisJ.de JongD. C.DebrotA.DeHaasE. C.. . . WolfS. (2020). Machine learning uncovers the most robust self-report predictors of relationship quality across 43 longitudinal couples studies. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, USA, 117(32), 19061–19071. https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.1917036117
25.
KarneyB. R.BradburyT. (1995). The longitudinal course of marital quality and stability: A review of theory, methods, and research. Psychological Bulletin, 118(1), 3–34. https://doi.org/10.1037/0033-2909.118.1.3
26.
KendlerK. S.JiJ.EdwardsA. C.OhlssonH.SundquistJ.SundquistK. (2015). An extended Swedish national adoption study of alcohol use disorder. JAMA Psychiatry, 72(3), 211–218. https://doi.org/10.1001/jamapsychiatry.2014.2138
27.
KendlerK. S.LönnS. L.SalvatoreJ.SundquistJ.SundquistK. (2017). Divorce and the onset of alcohol use disorder: A Swedish population-based longitudinal cohort and co-relative study. American Journal of Psychiatry, 174(5), 451–458. https://doi.org/10.1176/appi.ajp.2016.16050589
28.
KendlerK. S.OhlssonH.BacanuS.SundquistJ.SundquistK. (2023). Differences in genetic risk score profiles for drug use disorder, major depression, and ADHD as a function of sex, age at onset, recurrence, mode of ascertainment, and treatment. Psychological Medicine, 53(8), 3448–3460. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0033291721005535
29.
KendlerK. S.OhlssonH.SundquistJ.SundquistK. (2021a). Family genetic risk scores and the genetic architecture of major affective and psychotic disorders in a Swedish national sample. JAMA Psychiatry, 78(7):735–743. https://doi.org/10.1001/jamapsychiatry.2021.0336
30.
KendlerK. S.OhlssonH.SundquistJ.SundquistK. (2021b). The patterns of family genetic risk scores for eleven major psychiatric and substance use disorders in a Swedish national sample. Translational Psychiatry, 11(1), Article 326. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41398-021-01454-z
31.
KendlerK. S.OhlssonH.SundquistJ.SundquistK. (2023). Relationship of family genetic risk score with diagnostic trajectory in a Swedish national sample of incident cases of major depression, bipolar disorder, other nonaffective psychosis, and schizophrenia. JAMA Psychiatry, 80(3), 241–249. https://doi.org/10.1001/jamapsychiatry.2022.4676
32.
KennyD. A.KashyD. A.CookW. L. (2006). Dyadic data analysis. The Guilford Press.
33.
KesslerR. C.WalterE. E.ForthoferM. S. (1998). The social consequences of psychiatric disorders, III: Probability of marital stability. American Journal of Psychiatry, 155, 1092–1096.
34.
KotovR.KruegerR. F.WatsonD.AchenbachT. M.AlthoffR. R.BagbyR. M.BrownT. A.CarpenterW. T.CaspiA.ClarkL. A.EatonN. R.ForbesM. K.ForbushK. T.GoldbergD.HasinD.HymanS. E.IvanovaM. Y.LynamD. R.MarkonK.. . . ZimmermanM. (2017). The Hierarchical Taxonomy of Psychopathology (HiTOP): A dimensional alternative to traditional nosologies. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 126(4), 454–477. https://doi.org/10.1037/abn0000258
35.
KotovR.KruegerR. F.WatsonD.CiceroD. C.ConwayC. C.DeYoungC. G.EatonN. R.ForbesM. K.HallquistM. N.LatzmanR. D.Mullins-SweattS. N.RuggeroC. J.SimmsL. J.WaldmanI. D.WaszczukM. A.WrightA. G. C. (2021). The Hierarchical Taxonomy of Psychopathology (HiTOP): A quantitative nosology based on consensus of evidence. Annual Review of Clinical Psychology, 17, 83–108. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev-clinpsy-081219-093304
36.
KringlenE.TorgersenS.CramerV. (2001). A Norwegian psychiatric epidemiological study. American Journal of Psychiatry, 158(7), 1091–1098. https://doi.org/10.1176/appi.ajp.158.7.1091
KurdekL. A. (1993). Predicting marital dissolution: A 5-year prospective longitudinal study of newlywed couples. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 64(2), 221–242. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.64.2.221
39.
LavnerJ. A.LamkinJ.MillerJ. D. (2017). Trait impulsivity and newlyweds’ marital trajectories. Journal of Personality Disorders, 31(1), 133–144.
Metsa-SimolaN.MartikainenP.MondenC. W. (2018). Psychiatric morbidity and subsequent divorce: A couple-level register-based study in Finland. Social Psychiatry and Psychiatric Epidemiology, 53(8), 823–831. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00127-018-1521-2
43.
MojtabaiR.StuartE. A.HwangI.EatonW. W.SampsonN.KesslerR. C. (2017). Long-term effects of mental disorders on marital outcomes in the National Comorbidity Survey ten-year follow-up. Social Psychiatry and Psychiatric Epidemiology, 52, 1217–1226. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00127-017-1373-1
OverbeekG.VolleberghW.de GraafR.ScholteR.de KempR.EngelsR. (2006). Longitudinal associations of marital quality and marital dissolution with the incidence of DSM-III-R disorders. Journal of Family Psychology, 20(2), 284–291. https://doi.org/10.1037/0893-3200.20.2.284
46.
RaleyR. K.SweeneyM. M. (2020). Divorce, repartnering, and stepfamilies: A decade in review. Journal of Marriage and Family, 82(1), 81–99. https://doi.org/10.1111/jomf.12651
47.
RasbashJ.JenkinsJ.O’ConnorT. G.TackettJ.ReissD. (2011). A social relations model of observed family negativity and positivity using a genetically informative sample. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 100(3), 474–491.
48.
SalvatoreJ. E.Larsson LönnS.SundquistJ.KendlerK. S.SundquistK. (2023). Social genetic effects for drug use disorder among spouses. Addiction, 118, 880–889. https://doi.org/10.1111/add.16108
49.
SalvatoreJ. E.Larsson LönnS.SundquistJ.LichtensteinP.SundquistK.KendlerK. S. (2017). Alcohol use disorder and divorce: Evidence for a genetic correlation in a population-based Swedish sample. Addiction, 112(4), 586–593. https://doi.org/10.1111/add.13719
50.
SalvatoreJ. E.Larsson LönnS.SundquistJ.SundquistK.KendlerK. S. (2018). Genetics, the rearing environment, and the intergenerational transmission of divorce: A Swedish National Adoption Study. Psychological Science, 29(3), 370–378. https://doi.org/10.1177/0956797617734864
51.
SanteeA. C.RnicK.ChangK. K.ChenR. X.HoffmeisterJ. A.LiuH.LeMoultJ.DozoisD. J. A.StarrL. R. (2023). Risk and protective factors for stress generation: A meta-analytic review. Clinical Psychology Review, 103, Article 102299. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cpr.2023.102299
SbarraD. A.WhismanM. A. (2021). Divorce, health, and socioeconomic status: An agenda for psychological science. Current Opinion in Psychology, 43, 75–78. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.copsyc.2021.06.007
54.
ShorE.RoelfsD. J.BugyiP.SchwartzJ. E. (2012). Meta-analysis of marital dissolution and mortality: Reevaluating the intersection of gender and age. Social Science & Medicine, 75(1), 46–59. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.socscimed.2012.03.010
55.
SimmonsJ. P.NelsonL. D.SimonsohnU. (2011). False-positive psychology: Undisclosed flexibility in data collection and analysis allows presenting anything as significant. Psychological Science, 22(11), 1359–1366. https://doi.org/10.1177/0956797611417632
56.
SimonR. W. (2002). Revisiting the relationships among gender, marital status, and mental health. The American Journal of Sociology, 107(4), 1065–1096.
57.
SmithP. H.HomishG. G.LeonardK. E.CorneliusJ. R. (2012). Women ending marriage to a problem drinking partner decrease their own risk for problem drinking. Addiction, 107(8), 1453–1461. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1360-0443.2012.03840.x
58.
SmollerJ. W.AndreassenO. A.EdenbergH. J.FaraoneS. V.GlattS. J.KendlerK. S. (2019). Psychiatric genetics and the structure of psychopathology. Molecular Psychiatry, 24(3), 409–420. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41380-017-0010-4
SouthS. C.KruegerR. F. (2008). Marital quality moderates genetic and environmental influences on the internalizing spectrum. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 117(4), 826–837. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0013499
61.
SpottsE. L.NeiderhiserJ. M.GanibanJ.ReissD.LichtensteinP.HanssonK.CederbladM.PedersenN. L. (2004). Accounting for depressive symptoms in women: A twin study of associations with interpersonal relationships. Journal of Affective Disorders, 82, 101–111. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jad.2003.10.005
StrizziJ. M.KoertE.OverupC. S.CipricA.SanderS.LangeT.SchmidtL.HaldG. M. (2022). Examining gender effects in postdivorce adjustment trajectories over the first year after divorce in Denmark. Journal of Family Psychology, 36(2), 268–279. https://doi.org/10.1037/fam0000901
64.
SundquistJ.OhlssonH.SundquistK.KendlerK. S. (2017). Common adult psychiatric disorders in Swedish primary care where most mental health patients are treated. BMC Psychiatry, 17(1), Article 235. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12888-017-1381-4
65.
SuppesT.LeverichG. S.KeckP. E.NolenW. A.DenicoffK. D.AltshulerL. L.McElroyS. L.RushA. J.KupkaR.FryeM. A.BickelM.PostR. M. (2001). The Stanley Foundation Bipolar Treatment Outcome Network: II. Demographics and illness characteristics of the first 261 patients. Journal of Affective Disorders, 67(1–3), 45–59. https://doi.org/10.1016/s0165-0327(01)00432-3
66.
TanK.JarneckeA. M.SouthS. C. (2017). Impulsivity, communication, and marital satisfaction in newlywed couples. Personal Relationships, 24(2), 423–439. https://doi.org/10.1111/pere.12190
67.
TreasJ.LuiJ.GubernskayaZ. (2014). Attitudes on marriage and new relationships: Cross-national evidence on the deinstitutionalization of marriage. Demographic Research, 30, 1495–1526. https://doi.org/10.4054/DemRes.2014.30.54
68.
TuckerJ. S.KressinN. R.SpiroI.RuscioJ. (1998). Intrapersonal characteristics and the timing of divorce: A prospective investigation. Journal of Social and Personal Relationships, 15(2), 211–225.
69.
VaillantG. E. (2015). Triumphs of experience: The men of the Harvard Grant Study. Belknap Press of Harvard University Press.
70.
WhismanM. A.BaucomD. H. (2012). Intimate relationships and psychopathology. Clinical Child and Family Psychology Review, 15(1), 4–13. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10567-011-0107-2
71.
WhismanM. A.SalingerJ. M.SbarraD. A. (2021). Relationship dissolution and psychopathology. Current Opinion in Psychology, 43, 199–204. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.copsyc.2021.07.016
72.
WhismanM. A.SouthS. C. (2017). Gene-environment interplay in the context of romantic relationships. Current Opinion in Psychology, 13, 136–141. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.copsyc.2016.08.002
73.
WhismanM. A.UebelackerL. A.WeinstockL. M. (2004). Psychopathology and marital satisfaction: The importance of evaluating both partners. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 72, 830–838. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-006X.72.5.830
74.
WHO International Consortium in Psychiatric Epidemiology. (2000). Cross-national comparisons of the prevalences and correlates of mental disorders. WHO International Consortium in Psychiatric Epidemiology. Bulletin of the World Health Organization, 78(4), 413–426.
75.
WrayN. R.LeeS. H.MehtaD.VinkhuyzenA. A.DudbridgeF.MiddeldorpC. M. (2014). Research review: Polygenic methods and their application to psychiatric traits. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 55(10), 1068–1087. https://doi.org/10.1111/jcpp.12295
76.
Zahl-OlsenR. (2022). Understanding divorce trends and risks: The case of Norway 1886–2018. Journal of Family History, 48(1), 60–80. https://doi.org/10.1177/03631990221077008
Supplementary Material
Please find the following supplemental material available below.
For Open Access articles published under a Creative Commons License, all supplemental material carries the same license as the article it is associated with.
For non-Open Access articles published, all supplemental material carries a non-exclusive license, and permission requests for re-use of supplemental material or any part of supplemental material shall be sent directly to the copyright owner as specified in the copyright notice associated with the article.
