Most research on social media use (SMU) and well-being employs a variable-centered approach within a single culture. This study aims to (1) identify SMU subgroups using multiple indicators (i.e., problematic SMU, SMU intensity, active SMU, passive SMU and nighttime SMU) among emerging adults; (2) examine the effects of different SMU patterns on social and mental well-being; and (3) explore cultural differences in SMU subgroups and well-being between China and Italy. Participants were 565 Chinese university students (370 females, Mage = 19.54) and 425 Italian university students (308 females, Mage = 22.03). Latent profile analysis identified four SMU profiles in the Chinese sample: Averaged (P1, n = 253, 44.8%), Overall Low with Passive Use (P2, n = 80, 14.2%), Overall High with Low Passive Use (P3, n = 98, 17.3%), and Average with High Intensity (P4, n = 134, 23.7%). P3 and P4 in the Chinese sample were found to have higher level of both social and mental well-being than P1 and P2. In the Italian sample, three profiles emerged: Averaged (P1, n = 175, 41.2%), Overall Low with Passive Use (P2, n = 82, 19.3%), and Overall High with Low Passive Use (P3, n = 168, 39.5%). P2 in the Italian sample had the lowest level of social well-being, whereas no significant difference was found on mental well-being across three Italian profiles. Profiles differences in well-being, as well as cultural commonalities and specificities, are discussed.
AhmadZ.SoroyaS. H.MahmoodK. (2023). Bridging social capital through the use of social networking sites: A systematic literature review. Journal of Human Behavior in the Social Environment, 33(4), 473–489. https://doi.org/10.1080/10911359.2022.2064025
2.
AlmeidaF.MarquesD. R.GomesA. A. (2023). A preliminary study on the association between social media at night and sleep quality: The relevance of FOMO, cognitive pre-sleep arousal, and maladaptive cognitive emotion regulation. Scandinavian Journal of Psychology, 64(2), 123–132. https://doi.org/10.1111/sjop.12880
3.
AndreassenC. S.BillieuxJ.GriffithsM. D.KussD. J.DemetrovicsZ.MazzoniE.PallesenS. (2016). The relationship between addictive use of social media and video games and symptoms of psychiatric disorders: A large-scale cross-sectional study. Psychology of Addictive Behaviors, 30(2), 252–262. https://doi.org/10.1037/adb0000160
4.
AsparouhovT.MuthénB. (2014). Auxiliary variables in mixture modeling: Using the BCH method in Mplus to estimate a distal outcome model and an arbitrary secondary model. Mplus web notes, 21(2), 1–22.
5.
BergfeldN. S.Van den BulckJ. (2021). It’s not all about the likes: Social media affordances with nighttime, problematic, and adverse use as predictors of adolescent sleep indicators. Sleep Health, 7(5), 548–555. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.sleh.2021.05.009
6.
BoerM.StevensG.FinkenauerC.van den EijndenR. (2020). Attention deficit hyperactivity disorder-symptoms, social media use intensity, and social media use problems in adolescents: Investigating directionality. Child Development, 91(4), e853–e865. https://doi.org/10.1111/cdev.13334
7.
CarpiM.CianfaraniC.VestriA. (2022). Sleep quality and its associations with physical and mental health-related quality of life among university students: A cross-sectional study. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 19(5), 5. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph19052874
DienerE.EmmonsR. A.LarsenR. J.GriffinS. (1985). The satisfaction with life scale. Journal of Personality Assessment, 49(1), 71–75. https://doi.org/10.1207/s15327752jpa4901_13
10.
EwingC. R.NienstedtC.WrightR. R.ChambersS. (2023). Social media use motives: An influential factor in user behavior and user health profiles. Psi Chi Journal of Psychological Research, 28(4), 375.
11.
FrisonE.EggermontS. (2020). Toward an integrated and differential approach to the relationships between loneliness, different types of Facebook use, and adolescents’ depressed mood. Communication Research, 47(5), 701–728. https://doi.org/10.1177/0093650215617506
12.
FuchsC. (2021). Social media: A critical introduction (3rd ed.). Sage.
13.
GiagkouS.HussainZ.PontesH. (2018). Exploring the interplay between passive following on Facebook, Fear of Missing out, self-esteem, social comparison, age, and life satisfaction in a community-based sample. International Journal of Psychology & Behavior Analysis, 4(2), 2. https://doi.org/10.15344/2455-3867/2018/149
14.
HaskukaM.ArenliuA.KelmendiK. (2018). The relationship between substance use and suicidal behaviour among adolescents in selected European countries: A test of normalisation theory. Drugs: Education, Prevention & Policy, 25(5), 413–421. https://doi.org/10.1080/09687637.2017.1308468
15.
HawiN. S.SamahaM. (2017). The relations among social media addiction, self-esteem, and life satisfaction in university students. Social Science Computer Review, 35(5), 576–586. https://doi.org/10.1177/0894439316660340
16.
HofstedeG.HofstedeG. J.MinkovM. (2010). Cultures and organizations: Software of the mind (3rd ed.). McGraw-Hill.
17.
HruskaJ.MaresovaP. (2020). Use of social media platforms among adults in the United States—behavior on social media. Societies, 10(1), 27.
18.
HylkiläK.MännikköN.PeltonenA.CastrénS.MustonenT.KonttilaJ.MännistöM.KääriäinenM. (2024). Association between problematic social networking site use and social well-being among young adults: A systematic review. Journal of Affective Disorders Reports, 16(1), 100775. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jadr.2024.100775
19.
IlakkuvanV.JohnsonA.VillantiA. C.EvansW. D.TurnerM. (2019). Patterns of social media use and their relationship to health risks among young adults. Journal of Adolescent Health, 64(2), 158–164.
20.
KimB.KimY. (2017). College students’ social media use and communication network heterogeneity: Implications for social capital and subjective well-being. Computers in Human Behavior, 73(1), 620–628. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chb.2017.03.033
21.
KimH. H. (2017). The impact of online social networking on adolescent psychological well-being (WB): A population-level analysis of Korean school-aged children. International Journal of Adolescence and Youth, 22(3), 364–376. https://doi.org/10.1080/02673843.2016.1197135
22.
LinS.LiuD.LiuW.HuiQ.CortinaK. S.YouX. (2021). Mediating effects of self-concept clarity on the relationship between passive social network sites use and subjective well-being. Current Psychology, 40(3), 1348–1355. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12144-018-0066-6
23.
LinS.LiuD.NiuG.LongobardiC. (2022). Active social network sites use and loneliness: The mediating role of social support and self-esteem. Current Psychology, 41(3), 1279–1286. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12144-020-00658-8
24.
LinS.LongobardiC.GastaldiF. G. M.FabrisM. A. (2024). Social media addiction and aggressive behaviors in early adolescents: The mediating role of nighttime social media use and sleep quality. The Journal of Early Adolescence, 44(1), 41–58. https://doi.org/10.1177/02724316231160142
25.
LiuD.AinsworthS. E.BaumeisterR. F. (2016). A meta-analysis of social networking online and social capital. Review of General Psychology, 20(4), 369–391. https://doi.org/10.1037/gpr0000091
26.
LiuY.NiX.NiuG. (2020). The influence of active social networking services use and social capital on flourishing in Chinese adolescents. Children and Youth Services Review, 119(1), 105689. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.childyouth.2020.105689
27.
MarcianoL.OstroumovaM.SchulzP. J.CameriniA.-L. (2022). Frontiers | digital media use and adolescents’ mental health during the covid-19 pandemic: A systematic review and meta-analysis.
28.
MarshH. W.LüdtkeO.TrautweinU.MorinA. J. S. (2009). Classical latent profile analysis of academic self-concept dimensions: Synergy of person- and variable-centered approaches to theoretical models of self-concept. Structural Equation Modeling: A Multidisciplinary Journal, 16(2), 191–225. https://doi.org/10.1080/10705510902751010
29.
MarttilaE.KoivulaA.RäsänenP. (2021). Does excessive social media use decrease subjective well-being? A longitudinal analysis of the relationship between problematic use, loneliness and life satisfaction. Telematics and Informatics, 59(1), 101556. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tele.2020.101556
30.
MeierA.JohnsonB. K. (2022). Social comparison and envy on social media: A critical review. Current Opinion in Psychology, 45(1), 101302. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.copsyc.2022.101302
31.
MeyerJ. P.MorinA. J. S. (2016). A person-centered approach to commitment research: Theory, research, and methodology. Journal of Organizational Behavior, 37(4), 584–612. https://doi.org/10.1002/job.2085
32.
Nylund-GibsonK.ChoiA. Y. (2018). Ten frequently asked questions about latent class analysis. Translational Issues in Psychological Science, 4(4), 440–461. https://doi.org/10.1037/tps0000176
Politte-CornM.NickE. A.DickeyL.PeggS.ColeD. A.KujawaA. (2022). #Socialdistancing: Social media use and online social support moderate the effect of pandemic-related stress on internalizing symptoms in emerging adults. Journal of Social and Clinical Psychology, 41(1), 30–53. https://doi.org/10.1521/jscp.2021.40.6.30
SeabrookE. M.KernM. L.RickardN. S. (2016). Social networking sites, depression, and anxiety: A systematic review. JMIR Ment Health, 3(4), E50.https://doi.org/10.2196/mental.5842
38.
StiegerS. (2019). Frontiers | Facebook usage and life satisfaction.
39.
TangJ.-H.ChenM.-C.YangC.-Y.ChungT.-Y.LeeY.-A. (2016). Personality traits, interpersonal relationships, online social support, and Facebook addiction. Telematics and Informatics, 33(1), 102–108. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tele.2015.06.003
40.
UtzS.BreuerJ. (2017). The relationship between use of social network sites, online social support, and well-being. Journal of Media Psychology, 29(3), 115–125. https://doi.org/10.1027/1864-1105/a000222
41.
ValkenburgP. M.van DrielI. I.BeyensI. (2022). The associations of active and passive social media use with well-being: A critical scoping review. New Media & Society, 24(2), 530–549. https://doi.org/10.1177/14614448211065425
42.
VerduynP.GugushviliN.KrossE. (2022). Do social networking sites influence well-being? The extended active-passive model. Current Directions in Psychological Science, 31(1), 62–68. https://doi.org/10.1177/09637214211053637
43.
VerduynP.GugushviliN.MassarK.TähtK.KrossE. (2020). Social comparison on social networking sites. Current Opinion in Psychology, 36(1), 32–37. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.copsyc.2020.04.002
44.
VerduynP.LeeD. S.ParkJ.ShablackH.OrvellA.BayerJ.YbarraO.JonidesJ.KrossE. (2015). Passive Facebook usage undermines affective well-being: Experimental and longitudinal evidence. Journal of Experimental Psychology: General, 144(2), 480–488. https://doi.org/10.1037/xge0000057
45.
VerduynP.YbarraO.RésiboisM.JonidesJ.KrossE. (2017). Do social network sites enhance or undermine subjective well-being? A critical review. Social Issues and Policy Review, 11(1), 274–302. https://doi.org/10.1111/sipr.12033
46.
WooS. E.HofmansJ.WilleB.TayL. (2024). Person-centered modeling: Techniques for studying associations between people rather than variables. Annual Review of Organizational Psychology and Organizational Behavior, 11(1), 1. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev-orgpsych-110721-045646
47.
WoodsH. C.ScottH. (2016). #Sleepyteens: Social media use in adolescence is associated with poor sleep quality, anxiety, depression and low self-esteem. Journal of Adolescence, 51(1),, 41–49. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.adolescence.2016.05.008
48.
WrightR. R.EvansA.SchaefferC.MullinsR.CastL. (2021). Social networking site use: Implications for health and wellness. Psi Chi Journal of Psychological Research, 26(2), 165–175. https://doi.org/10.24839/2325-7342.JN26.2.165
49.
WrightR. R.HardyK.ShuaiS. S.EgliM.MullinsR.MartinS. (2018). Loneliness and social media use among religious latter-day saint college students: An exploratory study. Journal of Technology in Behavioral Science, 3(1), 12–25.
50.
WrightR. R.LarsonJ.RichardsS.HoffmannS.NienstedtC. (2023). The COVID-19 pandemic: Electronic media use and health among U.S. college students. Journal of American College Health, 3(1), 1–16.
51.
WrightR. R.SchaefferC.MullinsR.EvansA.CastL. (2020). Comparison of student health and wellbeing profiles and social media use. Psi Chi Journal of Psychological Research, 25(1), 14–21.
52.
ZhaiK.GaoX.WangG. (2018). The role of sleep quality in the psychological well-being of final year UndergraduateStudents in China. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 15(12), 12. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph15122881
53.
ZhengX.SangD.LinQ. (2004). Personality, cognitive and social orientations and subjective wellbeing among Chinese students. Australian Psychologist, 39(2), 166–171. https://doi.org/10.1080/00050060410001701889
54.
ZhuY.MengR.JiangC.YangN.HuangM.WangX.ZouW.LouC.XiaoR.LuJ.XuJ.Jiménez-CorreaU.MaH.SpruytK.DzierzewskiJ. M. (2023). Frontiers | Sleep quality and subjective well-being in healthcare students: Examining the role of anxiety and depression. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpubh.2023.1281571
55.
ZimetG. D.DahlemN. W.ZimetS. G.FarleyG. K. (1988). The multidimensional scale of perceived social support. Journal of Personality Assessment, 52(1), 30–41. https://doi.org/10.1207/s15327752jpa5201_2
Supplementary Material
Please find the following supplemental material available below.
For Open Access articles published under a Creative Commons License, all supplemental material carries the same license as the article it is associated with.
For non-Open Access articles published, all supplemental material carries a non-exclusive license, and permission requests for re-use of supplemental material or any part of supplemental material shall be sent directly to the copyright owner as specified in the copyright notice associated with the article.
