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Abstract

Many emerging adults receive parental financial assistance (PFA) to prepare for their future and career, but it can also be a psychological burden through parental career expectations. The purpose of this study was to examine whether actual PFA (APFA) and the evaluation of PFA (EPFA) were associated with Korean emerging adults’ psychological well-being both directly and indirectly through pressure from and the fulfillment of parental career expectations. Our data came from 1,107 never-married Korean emerging adults (593 women; 19-34-year-olds) who had at least one living parent. Structural equation modeling indicated that APFA was directly associated with higher life satisfaction while EPFA was directly related to both depressive symptoms and life satisfaction. Pressure from parental career expectations alone mediated the relationship between APFA/EPFA and depressive symptoms. The indirect relationship between APFA/EPFA and life satisfaction was also significant when pressure from career expectations and fulfillment of career expectations were sequential mediators.

Keywords

financial support from parents equity theory intergenerational transfer Korean families parents’ expectations

Emerging adults in many countries receive financial assistance from their parents, particularly when pursuing advanced education and facing difficulty entering the labor market (Danziger & Ratner, 2010; Kim & Lee, 2021). It is well-documented that parental financial assistance (PFA) offers numerous advantages to children during their transition to adulthood (Padgett & Remle, 2016). For example, PFA can help emerging adults maintain their current lifestyles (Dickler, 2019) and well-being (Lee, 2011) as they prepare for the future. However, PFA can also be a psychological burden because emerging adults entering adulthood may feel the need to be financially independent or perceive that their parents have “strings” attached to the support (Bryer, 2022; Fingerman et al., 2013). In this study, we focus on both the direct and indirect relationship between PFA and emerging adults’ psychological well-being.

In Confucian countries like South Korea (Korea hereafter), the child’s success is considered the success of the whole family. In order for Korean parents to guide their children into career success, parents tend to invest substantial financial resources in their children’s career preparation (e.g., education) from a young age, and parents often remain a crucial source of financial support throughout emerging adulthood (Kim & Lee, 2021; Shin & Yoo, 2012). Most Korean parents are highly involved in their children’s education, which is an important steppingstone to the child’s successful career. Parental involvement often comes with the expectation that their children will be accepted into a prestigious college and major in certain subjects.

In Korea, the neologism “kangaroo kids” has received considerable attention. This term refers to adult children who remain dependent on their parents, often financially, despite their adult status. Surveys have shown that most Koreans believe parents should financially support their children until they have a stable job (Ministry of Gender Equality and Family, 2021), which is not easy in today’s labor market. Another reason for prolonged PFA in Korea is delayed marriage. The average age at first marriage has increased over the past few decades to 33.4 years for men and 31.1 years for women in 2021 (Statistics Korea, 2022). Because Korean children traditionally remain under parental protection until they get married, delayed marriage often indicates that emerging adults today receive PFA for a longer time even into their early 30 s.

In this study, we examine PFA for unmarried Korean emerging adults aged 19-34 with diverse demographic backgrounds. We choose this age range instead of 18–29 year-olds, which is customary in the Western literature, based on the key legislation related to emerging adults in Korea. The 2020 Framework Act on Youth defines youth (“chung-nyeon”) as people who are 19–34 years old (Korea Legislation Research Institute, 2020). Korean scholars also agree that it is appropriate to consider 19-34-year-olds emerging adults because they face similar developmental tasks and challenges in Korea (Lee & Kang, 2018). Arnett (2015) also noted that the age range of emerging adulthood is socio-culturally determined.

Parents provide financial assistance, but in return, they may have certain expectations about their children’s career. Given filial piety in Korean culture, emerging adults tend to feel pressured to meet their parents’ expectations. How much emerging adults fulfill these expectations can be associated with emerging adults’ well-being. Therefore, pressure to fulfill parental career expectations may mediate the relationship between PFA and psychological well-being. In this study, we aim to examine whether PFA is associated with psychological well-being both directly and indirectly through pressure from and the fulfillment of parental career expectations among unmarried Korean emerging adults.

Literature Review

Parental Financial Assistance and Psychological Well-Being

Scholars have generally agreed that PFA provides a “safety net” and “scaffold” to help emerging adults gain human capital and eventually start a career (Swartz et al., 2011, 2017). However, a few studies have shown that PFA could be both positive and negative for emerging adults’ educational and economic achievements (Hamilton, 2013; Swartz et al., 2017). Despite an increase in empirical research on PFA, very little is known about the effect of PFA on adult children’s psychological well-being. In addition, limited research have shown mixed results. Some studies have noted that emerging adults can perceive PFA as extra help to move forward into the future so they can stand on their own economically, move towards a career, and improve their well-being (Johnson, 2013; Lee, 2011; Padilla-Walker et al., 2012). In this sense, PFA can be a significant benefit for emerging adults’ psychological well-being, especially in Korea where they are under extreme stress to find and maintain stable employment. However, in emerging adulthood when financial independence is considered a developmental task, receiving PFA can be a psychological burden. Studies have reported that PFA is negatively associated with emerging adults’ well-being including greater depressive symptoms (Johnson, 2013) and a negative self-perception (Padilla-Walker et al., 2012). These limited yet mixed results suggest that more research is needed to understand the underlying mechanism of PFA on emerging adults’ psychological well-being.

According to equity theory, an unbalanced exchange in interpersonal relationships can lead to psychological distress for over-benefited individuals because they may feel guilty about the benefits while under-benefited individuals may become frustrated (Walster et al., 1978). Based on this hypothesis, emerging adults who receive extensive PFA can be distressed because they over-benefit from the intergenerational exchange. However, these consequences may not be true for Korean emerging adults not only because PFA in emerging adulthood is expected in today’s Korea (Ministry of Gender Equality and Family, 2021) but also because they may anticipate repaying their parents in the future when their parents need support. Korean emerging adults might embrace the concept of long-term reciprocity based on the filial piety norm.

Emerging adults’ subjective evaluation of PFA may play a unique role in their psychological well-being above and beyond the actual PFA they receive. Even when two emerging adults are given the same level of financial assistance, they may evaluate it differently (Bryer, 2022). This is similar to previous studies reporting that how emerging adults’ interpretation of parenting styles is linked to their adjustment (Rote et al., 2020). In our context, some emerging adults may perceive that they have received more than they wanted or expected or more than their peers received and may be satisfied with the level of PFA they received. Conversely, others may be dissatisfied with the PFA and view it as less than what they wanted or expected or less than what their peers received even though it is the same level of PFA as those who are satisfied (Fingerman et al., 2013). However, prior research has only considered the actual amount of PFA (Goldscheider et al., 2001; Johnson, 2013; Padilla-Walker et al., 2012). In this study, we explore both the actual parental financial assistance (APFA) that emerging adults received as well as their evaluation of the parental financial assistance (EPFA) they received. As for EPFA, we examine both the subjective appraisal of the level of PFA they received compared to how much the emerging adults expected and how much their peers received as well as their satisfaction with the PFA they received.

Pressure from Parental Career Expectations and Fulfillment as Mediators

PFA can potentially lead to pressure on emerging adults because they may perceive that PFA comes with strings attached (Fingerman et al., 2013) in the form of high expectations that the children will have a successful career. Parents’ expectations are sometimes higher than their children’s expectations of their own career (Park et al., 2011). Emerging adults may perceive parental expectations about achievements both as care and pressure (Chun & Lee, 2014; Jang & Hong, 2014; Song & Hong, 2010) even though the literature has documented that higher parental expectations are linked to children’s better academic performance (Froiland et al., 2012; Lim, 2012; Rubie-Davis et al., 2010; Yoon & Kim, 2010). The critical aspect of parental expectations in children’s psychological well-being is how much the children perceive that their parents’ expectations add pressure to succeed (Wang & Heppner, 2002).

Pressure from parental career expectations for a successful career can lead to psychological burden on emerging adults (Lee & Kang, 2018). Research has found that children who feel pressure from high expectations tend to report higher levels of psychological distress and academic stress as well as lower levels of happiness and self-esteem (Jung & Kim, 2016; Ngai & Cheung, 2000; Yoon & Kim, 2010). Feeling pressured may be one reason that U.S. emerging adults with Asian backgrounds experience the so-called Asian American youth paradox: higher levels of internalizing problems despite successful academic performance and fewer externalizing problems (Choi et al., 2020). In this study, we hypothesize that PFA is associated with pressure from parental career expectations, which in turn, could be linked to lower levels of psychological well-being.

Existing research has identified that fulfilling parental expectations is a key intervening factor in the relationship between parental expectations and children’s well-being (Rubie-Davies et al., 2010; Shin & Yoo, 2012). Given the emphasis on filial piety and intergenerational interdependence in Confucian cultures, meeting parents’ expectations can hold significant importance even into adulthood. In these cultures, emerging adults may feel a stronger need to fulfill their parents’ expectations (Shek & Chan, 1999) and feel obligated to give back to their parents for the support they received. Some Korean children feel guilty if they do not try hard enough to fulfill their parents’ expectations (Shin & Yoo, 2012). However, feeling pressured from parental career expectations may make it harder to fulfill their parents’ career expectations. They may believe that their parents’ expectations are too high or they do not have what it takes to fulfill their parents’ expectations. If emerging adults feel that they do not fulfill their parents’ career expectations, it may result in lower levels of psychological well-being.

Based on equity theory, both under-benefited and over-benefited individuals in interpersonal relationships attempt to restore equity to relieve distress (Walster et al., 1978). Under-benefited parents who provide higher levels of PFA may have high expectations for their children’s career in hopes that their children’s success can reward or repay the parents for their financial investment in emerging adult children. For over-benefited emerging adults receiving higher PFA, fulfilling their parents’ career expectations could be a way to reach an equitable relationship with their parents, which is likely to lead to better psychological outcomes. Likewise, lower-achieving children are likely to feel that they have over-benefitted from their parents’ support, which could lead to psychological distress. We hypothesize that PFA is linked to pressure from parental career expectations and then to the level of fulfillment of parental career expectations, which could eventually contribute to psychological well-being.

The Present Study

The purpose of the current study is to examine whether APFA and EPFA are associated with never-married Korean emerging adults’ psychological well-being both directly and indirectly through pressure from and fulfillment of parental career expectations. We exclusively focus on never-married emerging adults not only due to the trend of delayed marriage in Korea but also due to the different types of PFA that married children may have received such as assistance with housing and wedding costs. This type of transfer for married children is generally one-time and is a higher amount in Korea compared to the ongoing PFA for living and educational expenses for unmarried emerging adults. In addition, compared to PFA for married children, PFA for unmarried emerging adult children may play a different role in emerging adults’ well-being.

Figure 1 displays our conceptual model. For psychological well-being, we use life satisfaction and depressive symptoms to examine both the positive and negative aspects. Our overarching research questions (RQs) are as follows:

Figure 1.

Conceptual model.

RQ1

Is actual parental financial assistance (APFA) associated with Korean emerging adults’ depressive symptoms and life satisfaction directly and indirectly through pressure from and fulfillment of parental career expectations?

RQ2

Is Korean emerging adults’ evaluation of parental financial assistance (EPFA) associated with depressive symptoms and life satisfaction directly and indirectly through pressure from and fulfillment of parental career expectations?

Method

Procedure

The data for this study came from a larger research project on parent-child relationships and psychological well-being among never-married Korean emerging adults aged 19-34. The selection criteria for the larger project were as follows: (a) 19–34 years old, (b) never married, and (c) not in secondary school. The larger project team collaborated with a leading online research company, Nielsen Korea, to conduct an online survey using a structured questionnaire in Korean. This company has online panels in their 20s or 30s with diverse demographic backgrounds so they could recruit a wide range of Korean emerging adults. The participants were chosen through quota sampling based on gender, age, education, residential areas, and employment status. The sampling principles in the project were (a) men and women were evenly distributed in three emerging adult age groups (19-24, 25-29, and 30–34 years), and (b) the sample distribution of education levels, residential areas, employment status, and parental income levels were close to the distribution of the Korean population aged 19 to 34.

For the present study, the sample of the larger project included only participants with at least one living parent or parent-like figure. Given the focus on emerging adults’ career in this study, we excluded those who were serving in the military (mandatory for Korean men), raising a child as a full-time parent, or unemployed due to an illness in the past month. Of the 1,148 emerging adult participants who responded to the survey, we used 1,107 responses for analysis.

Participants

The sample consisted of 593 women and 514 men with an average age of 26.96 years (SD = 4.16). As for education, 12.8% were high school graduates or lower, 26.6% were college students, 52.7% had graduated from 2- or 4-year college, 4.3% were in graduate school, and 3.5% had completed graduate degrees. Considering that 73.7% of high school graduates in Korea attend college (Statistics Korea, 2021), the education distribution of our participants was representative. Among the participants, 55.8% were employed, 22.9% were neither students nor employed, and 21.2% were full-time students. As for parental characteristics, 89.6% had both living parents, and 10.4% had only one living parent. About 72.8% of the emerging adults were living with at least one parent, which is similar to a recent Korean statistic indicating that 70.2% of emerging adults aged 19 to 29 lived with their parent(s) (Statistics Korea, 2019). As for parents’ monthly income, 48.0% earned KRW 1,000,000 – 3,990,000 (approximately USD 950 – 3,800), and 37.7% earned KRW 4,000,000 – 7,990,000 (approximately USD 3,800 – 7,600).

Measures

Demographic Variables

In testing the conceptual model, we controlled for demographic factors including emerging adults’ gender, age, years of education, employment status, income, coresidence with parents, and parents’ income. Gender was a dichotomous variable (1 = female). Age and years of education were continuous variables. Employment status and coresidence with parents were dichotomous variables (1 = yes). Emerging adults’ monthly income was measured in units of KRW 10,000 and was transformed using the inverse hyperbolic sine (IHS; Friedline et al., 2015) for the analysis given that the distribution of income was right skewed and had many zero values. The IHS transformation is a preferred approach to adjust for skewness when the data have zero and negative values compared to conventional methods like natural log transformation that requires adding 1 arbitrarily to retain zero earners. Parents’ monthly income was assessed in 16 levels (1 = less than KRW 1,000,000, 16 = more than KRW 15,000,000). The median value of income in each level was transformed using IHS.

Actual Parental Financial Assistance (APFA)

We measured APFA using three items: (a) the frequency of PFA, (b) the amount of PFA, and (c) the ratio of PFA out of all living expenses. First, the frequency of financial support the emerging adults received from their parents was measured by asking, “In the past year, how often did your parents support you financially? (e.g., for living expenses, allowance, tuition, other expenses).” An eight-point Likert scale was used: 1 (never, or less than once a year), 2 (once a year), 3 (a few times a year), 4 (once a month), 5 (a few times a month), 6 (once a week), 7 (a few times a week) and 8 (every day). Second, the amount of PFA was measured by asking, “In the past year, how much money did you receive from your parents for living expenses, tuition, allowance, and other expenses?” Participants answered in Korean currency (won) for the amount of PFA in the past year. The responses were transformed using IHS in the same way we transformed emerging adults’ income to adjust for skewness. Finally, to measure the ratio of living expenses the emerging adults received from their parents, the participants were asked, “Where do your living expenses come from? What percentage of your living expenses come from each of the following sources: myself, parents, public assistance, and other? The percentages should add up to 100%.” The ratio of PFA out of all living expenses was transformed using IHS because of the non-normal distribution of the ratio including many zero values. For structural equation modeling (SEM), the frequency, amount, and the ratio of PFA were used as observed variables for a latent variable, APFA. Cronbach’s alpha for the three APFA items was .74.

Evaluation of Parental Financial Assistance Received (EPFA)

EPFA was assessed by three items: (a) evaluation of the PFA received compared to what they expected, (b) evaluation of the PFA received compared to their peers, and (c) satisfaction with the PFA received. The first item asked, “Compared to how much you expected, how much do you think you have received?” The responses were based on a five-point Likert scale from 1 (very little compared to what I expected) to 5 (a lot more than what I expected). The second item asked, “Compared to how much your peers received from their parents, how much do you think you received?” The responses were from 1 (very little compared to my peers) to 5 (a lot more compared to my peers). The last item was, “How satisfied are you with the financial assistance that you received from your parents?” A five-point Likert scale was used (1 = very dissatisfied, 5 = very satisfied). In SEM, each item was used as an observed variable for a latent variable, EPFA. Cronbach’s alpha for the three EPFA items was .86.

Pressure from and Fulfillment of Parental Career Expectations

Pressure from parental career expectations was measured by a subscale of the Parental Career Expectations Scale (Shim, 2007). This scale was developed in Korean and has been widely used for Korean college students. Out of the four subscales (general, aptitude, family business, and economic expectations), we used the subscale of general career expectations. Other subscales were not appropriate for this study because they only focus on certain aspects of one’s career. The five-item general career expectations subscale measures whether participants experienced career pressure from their parents and whether they felt burdened to meet their parents’ expectations. Sample questions included “It would be very hard to achieve the career plan that my parents have set up for me” and “I feel pressured whenever I think of my parents’ expectations for my career.” A five-point Likert scale was used (1 = strongly disagree, 5 = strongly agree), with higher scores indicating that the participants perceived higher pressure. The five items were used as observed variables for a latent variable, pressure from parental career expectations. Cronbach’s alpha for the five items was .88.

Fulfillment of parental career expectations was measured subjectively by asking, “How much have you fulfilled your parents’ (or parent-like figure’s) expectations for your career?” A seven-point Likert scale was used (1 = not-at-all fulfilled, 4 = half-way fulfilled, 7 = fully fulfilled). Higher scores indicate that the participants believed that they fulfilled their parents’ expectations at a higher level.

Psychological Well-Being: Depressive Symptoms and Life Satisfaction

Depressive symptoms were measured using the Korean version (Lee, 2002) of the Center for Epidemiologic Studies – Depression Scale (CES-D; Radloff, 1977). CES-D asked participants to report their experiences and feelings related to 20 depressive symptoms in the past week on a 4-point Likert scale measuring the frequency (0 = rarely or none of the time, 1 = some of the time, 2 = occasionally or moderate amount of time, 3 = most or all of the time). Sample questions included “I felt bothered by things that usually don’t bother me” and “I had trouble keeping my mind on what I was doing.” Although the original CES-D had four factors (depressed, somatic, positive, and interpersonal), it is customary in studies to use the scale as a unidimensional measure partly because the factor structure is not well-supported (Lee, 2002; Stansbury et al., 2006). Therefore, we removed the four items of positive emotions following Lee and Kang (2018) because of a conceptual overlap and the statistical correlations between the items and the life satisfaction measure. For SEM, we created five-item parcels using 16 items for a latent variable, depressive symptoms, based on an item-to-construct balance technique (Little et al., 2002). Cronbach’s alpha for the 16 CES-D items was .94.

Life satisfaction was assessed by the five-item Satisfaction with Life Scale (SWLS; Diener et al., 1985). Sample items included, “In most ways, my life is close to my ideal” and “I am satisfied with my life” using a seven-point Likert scale (1 = strongly disagree, 7 = strongly agree). Higher scores indicate higher levels of satisfaction with their current life. For SEM, the five items were used as observed variables for a latent variable, life satisfaction. Cronbach’s alpha for the five items was .92.

Analysis Strategy

We conducted SEM using Mplus 8.4 with maximum likelihood estimation to examine our conceptual model. We first tested a measurement model to ensure that the observed variables were properly correlated with the latent variables and to determine if the measurement model fit the data. Next, we tested the structural path model with the latent variables to examine whether PFA was directly and indirectly associated with Korean emerging adults’ psychological well-being through pressure from and fulfillment of parental career expectations. We controlled for the participant’s gender, age, years of education, employment, income, coresidence with parents, and parents’ income based on the literature (Froiland et al., 2012; Jeong & Lee, 2016; Johnson, 2013; Padilla-Walker et al., 2012). The model fit was evaluated according to the fit indices including the model chi-square, comparative fit index (CFI), Tucker-Lewis index (TLI), the root mean square error of approximation (RMSEA), and standardized root mean square residual (SRMR). The significance of the indirect effects was examined using bootstrapping procedures with 1,000 bootstraps and a 95% biased-corrected confidence interval (CI). We did not have missing data because the online survey did not allow respondents to skip any relevant question. Supplementary Table 1 online presents the correlation matrix with descriptive statistics for all observed variables in the structural path model including demographic variables.

Results

The results of our measurement model analysis showed a good fit with the data, X² (195) = 602.474 (p < .001), RMSEA = .043, CFI = .974, TLI = .969, SRMR = .037. Overall, it was appropriate to use the 22 observed variables and the five latent constructs for the measurement model. (The coefficients of the measurement model are presented in Supplementary Figure 1 online.) As for the structural path model, our initial model had a good fit with the data, X² (306) = 943.530 (p < .001), RMSEA = .043, CFI = .961, TLI = .951, SRMR = .038. All paths were significant except for five paths: (a) from APFA to depressive symptoms, (b) from APFA to fulfillment of parental career expectations, (c) from EPFA to fulfillment of parental career expectations, (d) from fulfillment of parental career expectations to depressive symptoms, and (e) from pressure from parental career expectations to life satisfaction. Given the insignificant paths, we conducted a chi-square difference test to compare the initial model with all paths with a reduced model with only significant paths. The difference test results were insignificant, X² (5) = 9.649, p = .192, meaning that the model with fewer paths was better. Thus, we chose the reduced model as the final model that also had a good fit between the model and the data, X² (311) = 953.179 (p < .001), RMSEA = .043, CFI = .961, TLI = .951, SRMR = .040.

Relationship between APFA and Psychological Well-Being

Figure 2 shows the standardized coefficients of the final structural model, and Table 1 displays the direct, indirect, and total effects in the model. Controlling for demographic variables is not shown in Figure 2, but the coefficients for the paths between these control variables and main study variables are displayed in Supplementary Table 2 online.

Figure 2.

Final structural model: Standardized coefficients and standard errors. Note. Standard errors are in parentheses. Controlling for emerging adults’ characteristics (gender, age, years of education, employment status, income, coresidence with parents) and parents’ characteristics (income) are not shown. The coefficients and standard errors for the paths between these demographic variables and main study variables are displayed in Supplementary Table 2 online. X² (311) = 923.719 (p < .001), RMSEA = .042, CFI = .963, TLI = .954, SRMR = .040. ^*p < .05. ^***p < .001.

Table 1.

Standardized Bootstrap Estimates and 95% Bias-Corrected Confidence Intervals for Standardized Direct, Indirect, and Total Effects (N = 1,107).

Effect	β	SE	95 BC% CI
Effect	β	SE	LL	UL
Effects from APFA to DS
Indirect/Total: APFA → pressure → DS	.153^**	0.049	0.059	0.255
Effects from APFA to LS
Direct	0.237^*	0.095	0.061	0.432
Indirect: APFA → pressure → fulfillment → LS	−0.027^*	0.011	−0.053	−0.011
Total: Direct + indirect	0.211^*	0.097	0.034	0.402
Effects from EPFA to DS
Direct	−0.109^**	0.037	−0.180	−0.030
Indirect: EPFA → pressure → DS	−0.080^***	0.020	−0.122	−0.044
Total: Direct + indirect	−0.189^***	0.042	−0.264	−0.104
Effects from EPFA to LS
Direct	0.140^**	0.043	0.055	0.224
Indirect: EPFA → pressure → fulfillment → LS	0.014^**	0.005	0.006	0.026
Total: Direct + indirect	0.156^**	0.044	0.067	0.237

Note. APFA = actual parental financial assistance. EPFA = evaluation of received parental financial assistance. Pressure = pressure from parental career expectations. Fulfillment = fulfillment of parental career expectations. DS = depressive symptoms. LS = life satisfaction. CI = confidence interval. LL = lower limit. UL = upper limit.

^*p < .05. ^**p < .01. ***p < .001.

The direct path between APFA and depressive symptoms was not included in the final model given its non-significance. Both of the path from APFA to pressure from parental career expectations (β = .394, 95% CI = .158, .637) and the path from pressure to depressive symptoms (β = .387, 95% CI = .329, .445) were significant. That is, when emerging adults received more APFA, they were likely to perceive higher levels of pressure from parental career expectations; as a result, they experienced more depressive symptoms. This indirect effect from APFA to depressive symptoms through pressure from parental career expectations was significant (β = .153, 95% CI = .059, .255).

As for the relationship between APFA and life satisfaction, the direct effect was significant (β = .237, 95% CI = .061, .432). Those who received more APFA were more likely to report higher life satisfaction. In addition to the significant path from APFA to pressure from parental career expectations (β = .394, 95% CI = .158, .637), both paths from pressure to fulfillment (β = −.138, 95% CI = −.205, −.071) and from fulfillment to life satisfaction were significant (β = .487, 95% CI = .431, .538). Specifically, APFA was associated with higher levels of pressure from career expectations, which then led to emerging adults having more difficulty fulfilling their parents’ expectations, resulting in lower life satisfaction. This indirect effect with two sequential mediators was significant (β = −.027, 95% CI = −.053, −.011), as shown in Table 1. The total effect from APFA to life satisfaction was also statistically significant (β = .211, 95% CI = .034, .402).

Relationship between EPFA and Psychological Well-Being

The direct path from EPFA to depressive symptoms was negative, and this effect was statistically significant (β = −.109, 95% CI = −.180, −.030) as shown in Table 1. Higher levels of EPFA were associated with fewer depressive symptoms. EPFA was also associated with lower levels of pressure from parental career expectations (β = −.208, 95% CI = −.311, −.116). Specifically, emerging adults who reported higher levels of EPFA were less likely to experience pressure from parental career expectations, resulting in fewer depressive symptoms. This indirect effect with one mediator was significant (β = −.080, 95% CI = −.122, −.044). The total effect from EPFA to depressive symptoms was significant as well (β = −.189, 95% CI = −.264, −.104).

The path from EPFA to life satisfaction was positive, and this direct effect was significant (β = .140, 95% CI = .055, .224). In addition, the three paths (i.e., from EPFA to pressure, from pressure to fulfillment, and from fulfillment to life satisfaction) were all significant, as explained earlier in this section. This indirect effect from EPFA to life satisfaction through two sequential mediators—pressure and fulfillment—was significant (β = .014, 95% CI = .006, .026). The total effect was also significant (β = .156, 95% CI = .067, .237).

Discussion

The purpose of this study was to examine whether PFA was directly and indirectly associated with emerging adults’ psychological well-being through pressure from parental career expectations and fulfillment of parental career expectations. To better understand the role of PFA, we considered both actual PFA (APFA) and evaluation of the received PFA (EPFA).

Our first research question was whether APFA is associated with depressive symptoms and life satisfaction directly and indirectly through pressure from and fulfillment of parental career expectations. First, we found a significant direct effect from APFA to life satisfaction. Emerging adults who received greater or more frequent APFA were more satisfied with their life, which is consistent with previous studies (Johnson & Benson, 2012). This result may be because APFA is a financial resource that helps emerging adults explore identities, prepare for the future, and maintain a more comfortable lifestyle (Dickler, 2019; Semyonov & Lewin-Epstein, 2001) instead of trying to make ends meet.

However, the direct path from APFA to depressive symptoms was not included in our final reduced model due to non-significance. This is different from previous Western studies reporting that APFA led to higher levels of depression among emerging adults (Goldenscheider et al., 2001; Johnson, 2013). The insignificant direct path from APFA to depressive symptoms does not support equity theory, which posits that individuals who over-benefit from an interpersonal relationship experience psychological distress because they feel guilty (Walster et al., 1978). It may imply that emerging adults do not experience guilt because PFA in emerging adulthood is somewhat expected in Korea (Ministry of Gender Equality and Family, 2021). Another interpretation is that Korean emerging adults anticipate that their exchange with their parents will balance out in the future when they provide caregiving and support for their older parents. Based on this long-term reciprocity of the intergenerational support system, emerging adults may not feel that they have over-benefitted from APFA.

We also found a significant indirect effect of APFA on depressive symptoms through pressure from parental career expectations alone. When emerging adults received higher levels of APFA, they tended to feel pressure from their parents’ career expectations, which led to psychological distress. This result is in line with the results of prior research indicating that emerging adults feel pressured from excessive expectations, which can lead to negative psychological well-being (Jeong & Lee, 2016; Ngai & Cheung, 2000). Finally, we also found an indirect association between APFA and life satisfaction through sequential mediators: pressure from and fulfillment of parental career expectations. Specifically, emerging adults who received higher levels of APFA experienced more pressure from their parents’ career expectations, and then had difficulty fulfilling their parents’ career expectations, which was, in turn, related to lower life satisfaction. This result supports the literature reporting that the level of fulfillment mediates the relationship between parental expectations and children’s psychological well-being (Lee et al., 2018; Leung et al., 2011).

According to equity theory, both over-benefited and under-benefited individuals attempt to make the unbalanced relationship more balanced to relieve their distress. In Korea where children’s successful career is considered as their parents’ achievement, parents who provide PFA may have high expectations for their children’s career because they do not want to be under-benefited but hope that their financial investment in their children will be rewarded. Emerging adult children receiving PFA may be pressured to fulfill their parents’ expectations to repay their parents’ investment because they do not want to continue to feel that they have over-benefited from PFA. In Confucian cultures where parents and children already place great importance on fulfilling the expectations of their parents, higher expectations based on APFA can add greater pressure for emerging adults, which can make it difficult to fulfill their parents’ expectations. The results of this study supported this speculation. A higher level of APFA was linked to greater pressure from parents’ career expectations, which contributed to lower levels of fulfillment of parents’ career expectations. Lower fulfillment was related to lower life satisfaction.

Interestingly, despite the negative indirect effect of APFA on life satisfaction, the direct effect of APFA on life satisfaction was positive and stronger. A similar inconsistency has been found in the literature. Lee and Kang (2018) found that helicopter parenting had indirect associations both with greater depressive symptoms and higher levels of life satisfaction among emerging adults in Korea. Other studies have noted that the effect of PFA on emerging adults’ attainment of adult status could be both positive and negative (Hamilton, 2013; Swartz et al., 2017). Our results highlight that the relationship between APFA and psychological well-being is complicated, which requires further investigation. We suggest potential moderators and additional mediators in this complex mechanism in the implications section.

Our second research question was whether EPFA was directly and indirectly associated with depressive symptoms and life satisfaction. Unlike APFA that was only associated with life satisfaction, EPFA was directly associated with both depressive symptoms and life satisfaction. When emerging adults perceived that the amount of PFA they received was greater than what they expected and what their peers received or if they were more satisfied with the PFA they received, they were more likely to report higher levels of psychological well-being: fewer depressive symptoms and higher life satisfaction. Higher levels of EPFA may mean that emerging adults viewed PFA as a form of support and care and appreciated their parents regardless of the actual amount of PFA. This positive appraisal of PFA may have led to positive psychological well-being. Our result is in line with Clarkson et al.’s (2010) argument that even when individuals are given the same amount, their personal perceptions may result in different outcomes.

We also found that the indirect pathway from EPFA to depressive symptoms was significant through pressure from parental career expectations alone. Emerging adults who perceived that the level of PFA was sufficient were less likely to experience pressure from parental expectations, which, in turn, led to fewer depressive symptoms. It is interesting that EPFA was related to lower levels of pressure while APFA was linked to higher levels of pressure. This finding implies that although higher levels of APFA can lead to greater psychological burden for emerging adults, those who are satisfied with the level of the PFA may not be burdened by the assistance. Rather, they may perceive it as an extra help to move forward. As a result, they experience fewer depressive symptoms.

EPFA also had a significant indirect relationship with life satisfaction when pressure from career expectations and fulfillment of career expectations were sequential mediators. When emerging adults perceived that the amount of PFA they received was sufficient and satisfactory, they were less likely to feel pressured from parental career expectations, and then they were more likely to feel that they had fulfilled their parents’ career expectations, which, in turn, led to greater life satisfaction. A positive evaluation of PFA may have prevented them from feeling pressured to fulfill their parents’ career expectations, which could have contributed to more mental energy to work hard and fulfill their own and their parents’ career goals. This could eventually lead to greater satisfaction in overall life.

Implications and Limitations

The results of this study provide practical implications for educators, clinicians, and public policy makers. The direct link between APFA and life satisfaction in this study implies that emerging adults who receive little APFA are likely to be dissatisfied with their overall life. Given that the parents of these emerging adults are likely to have limited financial resources to assist their emerging adult children, it is crucial that public policies support the financial well-being of these emerging adults. Central and local governments in Korea have substantially expanded financial and housing assistance programs for emerging adults with limited financial resources. It is expected that these programs will enhance the life satisfaction of emerging adults who are unable to rely on PFA.

The findings of this study reveal that receiving higher levels APFA has potential risks including greater pressure to fulfill parents’ career expectations for their emerging adult children, which could make it difficult to meet these expectations. Educators and clinicians need to help emerging adults understand the potential risks and the overall mechanism that we found in this study. Although it may be necessary for emerging adults to receive PFA in today’s economy to prepare for the future, practitioners should underscore the importance of becoming financially self-sufficient in emerging adulthood instead of heavily relying on PFA for enhanced psychological well-being.

Finally, EPFA but not APFA had a direct link to depressive symptoms in this study. This finding suggests that it is not how much emerging adults receive from their parents that impacts their mental health but how they perceive the amount of the PFA they receive. Emerging adults’ EPFA is constructed based on their expectations and social comparisons to their peers. Educators and clinicians can help emerging adults set realistic expectations for PFA and understand their parents’ need to secure financial resources for their own later life. In particular, family practitioners can encourage emerging adults and their parents to talk about their expectations about PFA and children’s career using effective communication skills, which can contribute to better psychological well-being in emerging adulthood.

The limitations of the current study are worth noting for future research. First, since we used a cross-sectional dataset, we were unable to show causality of the relationships among the study variables. It is also plausible that emerging adults who have already fulfilled their parents’ career expectations may perceive their parents’ PFA in a more positive light. In addition, we could not investigate the long-term effect of PFA on well-being since no information was available about PFA during childhood and adolescence. We suggest a longitudinal design to examine the causal relationships among PFA, parents’ career expectations, and children’s well-being in emerging adulthood and later in life.

Second, our results highlight that the relationship between APFA and psychological well-being is complicated. However, this study was not comprehensive enough to examine the underlying processes. We suggest that future research extend the findings of the present study by examining what moderates the mediational pathways that we found and what mediates the association between PFA and psychological well-being. For example, we controlled for emerging adults’ demographic characteristics, but factors such as employment status and income may moderate the association between PFA and well-being. Our mediators could be moderators as well. For example, PFA may have a stronger relationship with psychological distress among emerging adults who do not believe that they have fulfilled their parents’ expectations for their career. In addition to the mediators in this study, it is also possible that other factors mediate the association between PFA and psychological well-being. For example, the qualities of the parent-child relationship (e.g., intimacy, appreciation, conflict) can be potential mediators. Specifically, higher levels of APFA and EPFA could lead to stronger ties with parents, which can contribute to better psychological well-being. Qualitative investigations are another alternative to understand the complex mechanism of PFA in emerging adulthood.

Finally, our APFA measures were limited even though the inclusion of multiple aspects of APFA is a strength of this study. The self-reported frequency, amount, and proportion of PFA may not be precise because each of them was measured using a single item. More advanced ways may be the use of multiple items for different categories of financial assistance (e.g., living expenses, tuition, and housing) when measuring APFA. In addition, our APFA items were based on what emerging adults received in the past year, which ignored what they received earlier. Because accumulated APFA over the years may also be important in understanding the impact of APFA, we suggest that future research consider APFA during a longer period of time.

Conclusion

This study contributes to a more comprehensive understanding of the complex mechanism between PFA and emerging adults’ psychological well-being. By examining both APFA and EPFA, the results revealed that emerging adults’ perceptions of PFA is as important as the actual value or frequency of financial assistance. The results of this study better explain the mechanism by which APFA and EPFA are linked to emerging adults’ psychological well-being through both pressure from and fulfillment of parental career expectations. This approach is useful particularly in the Korean context where parents’ expectations for their children’s career is one of the most crucial topics in emerging adulthood (Kim et al., 2011).

Supplemental Material

Supplemental Material - Parental Financial Assistance and Psychological Well-Being Among Korean Emerging Adults: Pressure from and Fulfillment of Parental Career Expectations as Mediators

Supplemental Material for Parental Financial Assistance and Psychological Well-Being Among Korean Emerging Adults: Pressure from and Fulfillment of Parental Career Expectations as Mediators by Sangmin Oh and Jaerim Lee in Emerging Adulthood

Supplemental Material

Supplemental Material - Parental Financial Assistance and Psychological Well-Being Among Korean Emerging Adults: Pressure from and Fulfillment of Parental Career Expectations as Mediators

Footnotes

Authors' Note

Sangmin Oh and Jaerim Lee contributed to this study equally. The second author substantially revised the first author’s master’s thesis, which was presented at the Fall Conference of Korean Family Studies Association in December, 2020.

Declaration of Conflicting Interests

The author(s) declared no potential conflicts of interest with respect to the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article.

Funding

The author(s) received no financial support for the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article.

Ethical Approval

Approval was obtained from the Seoul National University Internal Review Board (SNU IRB). The procedures used in this study adhere to the tenets of the Declaration of Helsinki.

Open Practices

The raw data and the analysis code used in this study are not openly available due to privacy restrictions set by our IRB but are available upon request to the corresponding author. No aspects of this study were preregistered.

ORCID ID

Jaerim Lee

Supplemental Material

Supplemental material for this article is available online.

Author Biographies

Sangmin Oh graduated from Seoul National University with an M.A. in Child Development and Family Studies. Her research interests are parent-child relationships and psychological wellness with an emphasis on emerging adults.

Jaerim Lee is an Associate Professor in the Department of Child Development and Family Studies at Seoul National University. Her research has focused on emerging and young adulthood in the context of Korean families with special interests in intergenerational relationships, parenting, and intimate partnerships.

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