Abstract
Driven by national, political and socio-economic circumstances in Venezuela, there has been a mass influx of Venezuelan migrants into Trinidad and Tobago (T&T). Conditions in T&T have affected the receptivity of Venezuelan migrants. Using framing as the theoretical lens, this study extends research on media depictions of migrants into a Caribbean context by examining ways in which the mainstream newspapers in T&T presented Venezuelan migrants over a one-year period. Results reveal that although there is some attention to Venezuelan migrants’ integration into life in T&T, such attention is limited. Primarily, T&T newspapers other Venezuelan migrants by labelling and clustering them and highlighting their association with crime, human rights challenges they face and the State’s response. Such depictions have the potential to signal the manner in which Venezuelan migrants are seen and treated. We discuss the implications of these representations in relation to the existing literature and offer recommendations moving forward.
Introduction
The recent explosion of migration from the Bolivarian Republic of Venezuela (Venezuela) to Trinidad and Tobago (T&T), the southernmost Caribbean island, began around 2015 (Rodriguez & Collins, 2021) and continued during the height of the COVID-19 pandemic in 2020–2022 (Boodram, 2023). T&T is approximately 470 miles north of Venezuela, which is situated on the northern coast of South America. The close proximity between the two countries and the porous borders of T&T have facilitated the entry of many Venezuelan migrants into T&T through illegal ports of entry. With its geographic location, Spanish ancestry, and other cultural ties, Venezuelans often identify themselves as Hispanic and Latine. Meanwhile, T&T reflects its history as a former sugar colony that saw Africans forcibly brought to work the plantations—later followed by East Indians. Today, the two largest ethnic groups in the country are people of African and East Indian descent (United Nations Population Fund, n.d.).
As of November 2023, there were ‘approximately 44,800 Venezuelan migrants, refugees, and asylum seekers’ (ACAPS, n.d., para. 1). For the purposes of this study, the term ‘Venezuelan migrants’ will be used to include Venezuelan asylum-seekers and Venezuelan refugees. The large number of persons from one country entering small island developing states, such as T&T, brings with it certain challenges, in particular, a strain on limited resources of the host State and the consequent unique experiences of migrants. These experiences are deeply linked to the lack of adequate legislative protection for refugees and result in the exposure of Venezuelans to violations of the right to non-discrimination, non-penalisation and non-refoulement.
Previous research has documented the media’s ability to shape issues that are in front of mind for the public and thereby to exert some influence on public discourse (van Dijk, 1993). Underscoring the importance of this research is Blinder and Allen’s (2016) assertion that ‘mass media’s discursive construction of “immigration” shapes public perceptions or mental images of immigrants’ (p. 5) and the role of news media in informing political and policy decisions related to immigration (McCann et al., 2023). Especially in a post-colonial slave society (T&T), in which undercurrents of racism and xenophobia exist, it is important to examine the media representation of migrants. Seo and Kavakli (2022), who conducted a meta-analysis of media depictions of immigrants, refugees and asylum seekers, contend that there is ‘an utter lack of research outside the European and North American contexts’ (p. 159). Moreover, Wallace and Mortley (2021) declare, ‘the exponential migration of Venezuelans is an emerging issue within the Caribbean that is gravely under researched’ (p. 179). With these factors in mind, the current research moves one step toward filling this lacuna. To that end, the research question guiding this study is: How do mainstream newspapers in T&T present Venezuelan migrants living in T&T?
The major goals of this study are to: (a) identify the most salient themes the mainstream newspapers in T&T used in their coverage of Venezuelan migrants and (b) explore the messages being communicated by the media in their framing of Venezuelan migrants. The study extends investigations on global migration by spotlighting the twin-island Republic of T&T, which has seen a significant influx of Venezuelan nationals seeking refuge.
As our identities informed the research process, it is worth noting aspects of our identity. We are Trinbagonian. One of us identifies as a woman of African descent, the other as a man of Asian and European ethnicity.
Literature Review
Theoretical Framework
Okoye (2022) asserts, ‘Framing theory helps us to make sense of the complexity of mediating immigration and migrants’ (pp. 2157–2158). The theory contends that the media organise information about the subjects they cover and the narrative presented. In so doing, the media ‘[select], [emphasize] and [give] precedence to certain attributes’ of a news story (Amores et al., 2019, p. 148). The media’s presentation of information, in turn, affects how audiences’ view particular topics (Goffman, 1974). Definitions of framing abound. D’Angelo (2017) contends, a media frame is ‘a written, spoken, graphical, or visual message’ used ‘to contextualize a topic, such as a person, event, episode, or issue, within a text’ (p. 1). Meanwhile, Neuman et al. (1992) describe frames as ‘conceptual tools which media and individuals rely on to convey, interpret and evaluate information’ (p. 60). Simon and Xenos (2000) state, ‘a frame is an ever-present discursive device that channels the audience as it constructs the meaning of particular communicative acts’ (p. 367). Entman (1993) notes, as communicators frame subjects, some aspects are accentuated, whereas others are excluded. By increasing or decreasing the salience, the media define the issue and discourse around it and ascribe meaning. By functioning as mental constructs, media frames can shape people’s understanding of a subject (Reese, 2001). Moreover, the perpetuation of media frames reinforces specific viewpoints.
Media Framing of Migrants
Not only do media depictions contribute to public attitude and discourse, but they can also influence policies and foster certain lines of thinking (Fleras & Kunz, 2001). As frames are discursively constructed, they serve as rhetorical tools that (re)produce common beliefs about various topics, including migrants (Scardigno et al., 2024). The media’s representation of migrants, therefore, can affect people’s view of immigrants (Esses, 2021; Esses et al., 2021; Haynes et al., 2016). Increasingly, Western media depict immigrants and refugees as threats to the host country (Esses et al., 2013), jeopardising safety, cultural identity, economy and health in the host country (McCann et al., 2023). Atwell Seate and Mastro (2016) note, ‘immigrants who belong to racialised outgroups are constructed as a physical threat, economic threat, or symbolic threat (jeopardising the host country’s culture).’ Furthermore, Crawley (2005), Threadgold (2009) and Balch and Balabanova (2016) posit that the media’s negative portrayals of migrants and asylum seekers have instinctively given rise to negative public attitudes and indeed promote opposition toward immigrants. Lawlor and Tolley (2017), though, found, media frames of immigrants and refugees differ, with coverage of refugees leaning ‘more negative’ than that of immigrants (p. 985). Liu (2019) asserts, regardless of ‘historical, demographic, economic, and political’ factors (p. 2), media frames of immigration are limited and tend to be negative or ambivalent. To a lesser extent, migrants are framed as victims, and to an even smaller degree, they are framed as assets (Crawley et al., 2016). As Amores et al. (2019) contend, visual media frames of migrants and refugees are influenced by external factors. In Europe, ‘media in regions under more pressure from the wave of migration adopt a more biased treatment of the crisis, with a clear interest in showing the displaced people less as victims and more as a burden or threat for Western cultures and societies’ (Amores et al., 2019, p. 157).
Hence, ‘Whenever native-born respondents observe images or stories including foreigners on television, in the newspaper, or on the radio, they are reminded of the presence of immigrants in their country’ (Herda, 2010, p. 677). Taking Herda’s (2010) statement into account, news coverage of Venezuelan migrants in T&T likely makes it hard to forget that this group of migrants is present. Additionally, as news media contribute to public perception of ‘the legal and moral responsibilities of’ the host country to migrants (McCann et al., 2023, p. 6), the coverage also reinforces social, legal, political and economic factors tied to migration.
Prior to COVID-19, media frames around Venezuelan migrants in T&T often stigmatised them and were ‘co-mingled with xenophobia and labelling’ (Peters & Berkeley, 2021, p. 274). Ramcharitar (2023) argues that in T&T, mass media can promote views that result in ‘nativism not just [being] pervasive, but normal and acceptable’ (p. 257).
Trinbagonians’ Attitude Toward Venezuelan Migrants
Admittedly, ‘the phenomenon of Venezuelan migrants […] is understudied in Trinidad and Tobago’ (Peters & Berkeley, 2021, p. 280). A review of the literature suggests, generally, Trinbagonians view Venezuelan migrants in a negative light. Anatol and Kangalee (2021) highlight a viewpoint that the crime increase in T&T is attributed to migration from Venezuela. Although there is a low incidence of crime at the hands of migrants, public opinion fora in T&T are plagued with anti-immigrant sentiment (Neptune-Figaro, 2023). The anti-immigrant attitudes exist among the general public as well as by the State (Chapman, 2023). Peters and Berkeley (2021) call attention to public officials in T&T whose comments have reinforced stigma against Venezuelan migrants. As Amores et al. (2019) state, ‘political and economic factors have a direct influence on the decisions made in the media, and conversely, the media can influence the decisions that are made in politics’ (p. 157). While the government is not the focus of this study, their position may have contributed to newspapers’ presentation of information on Venezuelan migrants.
Taking the foregoing discussion to its logical conclusion, this research is urgently required. We undertook the study, motivated by Bilge’s (2019) contention that ‘the host culture’s mass media is demonstrative of general perceptions about the newcomer’ (p. 114). Gaining an understanding of the ‘host culture’s perceptions of the newcomers’ (Bilge, 2019, p. 114) through an examination of mainstream newspapers’ coverage offers further insight into the receptivity of Venezuelan migrants into T&T and forewarns of their integration into the fabric of T&T’s society. As Irom et al. (2022) did, we use a critical lens to probe the framing of Venezuelan migrants in T&T. Media frames can ‘perpetuate existing systemic inequalities’, and therefore, it is necessary to go beyond counting the themes in newspaper articles to examine the overt and underlying implications of those themes (Irom et al., 2022, p. 110).
Methodology
This qualitative study centred on understanding the picture mainstream newspapers in T&T paint of Venezuelan migrants. We chose the medium of newspapers because print media depict immigration in a realistic manner (Herda, 2015). In keeping with previous studies such as Liu (2019) and Yang (2021), we focused on a one-year period—from 30 July 2022 to 29 July 2023 inclusive. We selected this time frame primarily because T&T lifted major COVID-19 restrictions on 29 July 2022; prior to the removal of these restrictions, much of the discourse on Venezuelan migrants in T&T revolved around their role in the spread of COVID-19. We wanted to analyse the data without having COVID-19 overshadow the conversation.
There are three local daily newspapers in T&T: Trinidad and Tobago Guardian, Trinidad and Tobago Newsday and Trinidad Express Newspapers. All of these publications have a national circulation, are privately owned and their content is available in print and online. None leans particularly liberal or conservative.
Using the publications’ online search tools, we searched for all news articles on Venezuelan migration to T&T published between 30 July 2022 and 29 July 2023. The terms used in the search included ‘Venezuelan migrant’, ‘Venezuelan national’, ‘Venezuelan refugee’ and ‘Vene’ (informal reference to Venezuelans). We identified 147 articles and then excluded 26 results because they were not related to the topic at hand or were duplicates. For example, if an article contained both the terms ‘Venezuelan national’ and ‘Venezuelan refugee’, the same article would appear in the search results twice. As such, we deleted one of the results. The final sample comprised 121 articles.
We used thematic analysis, as described by Braun and Clarke (2006). Our search for themes relied on an inductive approach. We read the newspaper articles multiple times to become familiar with the data. Next, we perused the articles to generate initial codes. Following this, we combined the codes to develop possible themes. We reviewed the themes and patterns among them, and from there, we conducted subsequent analyses to develop a final list of themes, which we defined and named. As we coded the data, we conferred with each other to ensure we were in agreement and to increase the trustworthiness of the results. Upon completion of our thematic analysis, we identified five themes.
Results
During our analysis, we noticed two trends. The first trend sought to portray Venezuelan migrants positively and was captured in the following theme:
The second trend represented the media’s overt othering of Venezuelan migrants and was apparent in the following themes:
Venezuelan Migrants’ Integration into Life in T&T
This theme refers to steps both migrants and the host country were taking to encourage the social inclusion of Venezuelan migrants and promote harmonious relationships between the two groups. Newspaper articles highlighted the contribution of Venezuelan migrants to the economy of the country, their participation in skills-training programmes, sports and cultural events. Also spotlighted was the bridging of the language gap through the exchange of Spanish and English and the extension of the migrant registration programme by the Government of T&T.
A 30 May 2023 article in Trinidad and Tobago Newsday stated, ‘The first cohort of Venezuelan migrant and refugee women graduated […] from the Venezuelan Integration and Development Association’s (VIDA) pilot project that trained the women in home-based gardening, agribusiness and conversational English.’ Meanwhile, a 23 February 2023 article in Trinidad Express Newspapers pointed out that during the ‘Carnival Tuesday late-night revelry, known traditionally as the Las Lap’, some revellers were ‘ably assisted by a group of Venezuelan migrants armed with drums and playing a lively rhythm as they led a procession … At one point, members of the Venezuelan contingent started a samba dance in the middle of the road.’ Such articles point to Venezuelans availing themselves of opportunities and embracing T&T’s traditions while retaining elements of their culture.
Within the theme, we noted that there was also a focus on steps that entities within T&T were taking to provide for migrants. Some articles published in T&T newspapers called attention to the work of the Roman Catholic Church and non-governmental organisations, such as La Romaine Migrant Support Group, Living Water Community and Is There Not a Cause, in supporting Venezuelan migrants.
Human Rights Challenges Faced by Venezuelan Migrants in T&T
The data pointed to challenges Venezuelan migrants faced navigating life in T&T in accessing education, healthcare and, at times, becoming victims of slavery or servitude. Primarily, this is a result of the disadvantageous position in which they find themselves as a result of their immigration status and T&T’s governmental policies. For instance, an article published in Trinidad and Tobago Guardian on 14 July 2023 stated,
A study conducted by the International Organization for Migration unearthed that more than 60 percent of Venezuelan migrant children did not have access to education in T&T. The findings of the study also showed underpayment of Venezuelan migrants and pointed to increased concerns about the uptake of sexual and reproductive health.
Moreover, the following 14 May 2023 article in Trinidad Express Newspapers illustrates the risk that Venezuelan migrants face, being held in slavery or servitude:
A 19-year-old Venezuelan migrant has told of being abducted, raped and sold into sexual slavery in Trinidad […] The woman […] told police that […] she was taken from a bar […] and carried to a house […] where she was raped. She was then taken to another apartment [where], with a gun to her head, she was told by a man that she had been sold to them, to be a prostitute.
Labelling and Clustering of Venezuelan Migrants
The data also denoted the newspapers’ labelling and clustering of Venezuelan migrants. The words ‘illegal’ and ‘undocumented’, which were used to describe Venezuelan migrants living in T&T without the necessary legal documentation, reduce these individuals to their immigration status and underscore their otherness or difference. ‘Illegal’ and ‘undocumented’ carry with them negative undertones, and articles that used these terms signalled that the individuals being referenced did not belong to T&T and further emphasised that their presence in the country was illegal. Examples include: ‘The Heliport was set up in 2020 … as a COVID-19 quarantine centre for those illegal immigrants’ (Trinidad Express Newspapers, 3 July 2023) and ‘Government had expressly said illegal immigrants, whether or not they had an asylum-seeker certificate, would be treated in accordance with provisions of the Immigration Act’ (Trinidad and Tobago Newsday, 3 July 2023). Articles later that month stated, ‘The State is set to defend scores of compensation claims from illegal migrants’ (Trinidad and Tobago Guardian, 26 July 2023) and ‘the purpose of the Heliport facility was strictly to accommodate illegal migrants’ (Trinidad Express Newspapers, 27 July 2023).
Further, newspaper reports often refer to immigrants as a cluster or group of collective elements, and this depersonalises them and their experiences. It further denies them of their individuality, personality and even dignity. A case in point is the headline of 10 July 2023 in Trinidad and Tobago Guardian, which referred to Venezuelan migrants as undocumented and lumped them into a single group: ‘200 undocumented Venezuelans arrested.’
Venezuelan Migrants’ Association with Crime
The theme reflects Venezuelans as both victims and perpetrators of crime. The extensive reporting on Venezuelan migrants’ being tied to crime in some capacity fuels the perception that they are dangerous and simply being in their presence could pose a danger to one’s safety. The newspapers’ decision to highlight that the victims and perpetrators were Venezuelan nationals underscored that they were not T&T citizens and therefore different from Trinbagonians.
A single article published by Trinidad and Tobago Newsday on 15 April 2023 included the following: ‘A Venezuelan national had been charged with operating an illegal gambling house’ and ‘A 25-year-old Venezuelan woman was arrested for operating illegal gaming houses.’ Media representations of a seemingly inextricable link between Venezuelan migrants and crime feature prominently with headlines such as:
‘Venezuelan accepts private-hire work, gets robbed & shot’ (Trinidad and Tobago Guardian, 7 August 2022) ‘Man, 19, charged with robbing Venezuelan salesman’ (Trinidad and Tobago Guardian, 8 August 2022) ‘Venezuelan knifed to death in Couva’ (Trinidad Express Newspapers, 14 August 2022) ‘Venezuelans held with big money’ (Trinidad Express Newspapers, 21 August 2022) ‘Venezuelan national charged with human trafficking’ (Trinidad and Tobago Guardian, 3 October 2022) ‘Venezuelan woman charged with assaulting police officer, resisting arrest’ (Trinidad and Tobago Guardian, 26 October 2022) ‘15 year old Venezuelan charged with murder’ (Trinidad Express Newspapers, 20 March 2023)
The State’s Response to the Influx of Venezuelan Migrants
A common State response stemmed from claims by Venezuelan migrants who were seeking judicial redress. One case dealt with an order made by the Minister of National Security to detain migrants at the Chaguaramas Heliport, which led to migrants’ claim of a breach by T&T of the United Nations Human Rights Due Diligence Policy. The case also drew attention to what they claimed to be ‘inhumane’ conditions at the Heliport (Trinidad Express Newspapers, 20 July 2023; Trinidad and Tobago Newsday, 25 July 2023).
In another matter, the question of the effect of international law on domestic law arose as the High Court considered the applicability of local immigration laws on refugees in light of the 1951 United Nations Refugee Convention. That case arose from an order by the Minister of National Security to deport a Venezuelan migrant. Newspaper headlines included ‘Reactions after court ruling on asylum-seekers, refugees: “Urgent need for legislative reform”’ (Trinidad and Tobago Newsday, 4 July 2023) and ‘[UPDATED] Judge: T&T not bound by UN convention - WAY CLEAR TO DEPORT’ (Trinidad and Tobago Newsday, 4 July 2023). This case is the subject of an appeal.
Discussion
Coming out of our analysis of the mainstream newspapers in T&T, we call attention to three main takeaways: (a) a limited number of “positive” depictions of Venezuelan migrants in contrast to an array of negative portrayals, (b) the media’s dehumanisation and depersonalisation of Venezuelan migrants in T&T and (c) the role of otherness in the unique racial landscape that is T&T. Following the discussion of the takeaways, we put forward recommendations.
First, it is worth restating that negative newspaper coverage of Venezuelan migrants surpassed positive. Within the seemingly positive trend, the theme of integration spotlighted the way in which status is utilised in portraying messages about Venezuelan migrants. Venezuelan migrant status is commonly used when reporting on a negative story but frequently omitted when the story is positive. Through this convenient use of status, the newspapers frame an imbalanced image of Venezuelan migrants in T&T. The limited presence of the theme of integration within articles is not shocking given de Vreese’s (2005) finding about the coverage of topical issues and general principles of framing, which show that newspaper reports call attention to certain elements and exclude others. ‘The people’s paper’, Trinidad and Tobago Newsday, presented the most comprehensive view of Venezuelans in T&T. Portrayals of Venezuelans’ integration that do exist align with the idea of social inclusion, whereby there is an emphasis on reducing social exclusion and promoting full participation in society (McDonald et al., 2019).
Despite what might appear to be positive on the surface, the trend reveals that there are significant gaps to true integration. According to Ndofor-Tah et al. (2019), ‘Integration encompasses access to resources, like education and healthcare, opportunities for work and leisure, as well as broader concepts like social mixing’ (p. 7). Thousands of migrants remain unregistered and, per newspaper reports, are ineligible to receive free healthcare. Therefore, they cannot fully integrate into life in T&T. A similar situation exists with access to education and the right to work in the country legally.
Second, in contrast to the media’s limited focus on integration stands the tendency by the media to treat Venezuelan migrants differently. The media’s othering of Venezuelan migrants is multidimensional. This othering may be attributed to weak human rights protection by the State. After all, politics has a direct influence on media decisions (Amores et al., 2019). Thus, if Venezuelan migrants are not seen as being worthy of protection by the State, it is easier for the media to dehumanise them (Curle, 2020). The prevalence of newspaper reports on human rights violations such as breaches of the right not to be prosecuted for illegal entry (non-penalisation), the right not to be discriminated against on the basis of their status (non-discrimination) and the right not to be returned to their country of origin prior to a determination of their status (non-refoulement) undermines their integration. Continuous reporting on the human rights challenges Venezuelan migrants face and the State’s response reinforces the otherness of Venezuelan migrants.
In addition to a steady focus on migrants’ human rights challenges and government actions, newspapers dehumanise and outcast Venezuelan migrants by linking them to crime. This, according to Bar-Tal (2000), others those who do not belong to the dominant group and strips them of their human nature. Dehumanisation has far-reaching consequences on affect and behaviour (Bar-Tal, 2000; Esses et al., 2008, 2012, 2013, 2021; Sutter, 2017). Framing immigrants—in this case, Venezuelan migrants—as a threat, stokes apprehension about the racialised outgroup (van der Linden & Jacobs, 2017). As Haslam (2006) declares, dehumanisation is ‘arguably most often mentioned in relation to ethnicity, race, and related topics such as immigration’ (p. 252). The media’s dehumanisation of Venezuelan migrants can signal to the public ‘how immigrants and refugees should be viewed and how they should be treated’ (Esses et al., 2013, p. 522). Further, as the results show, mainstream newspapers in T&T other Venezuelan migrants through the use of the terms ‘illegal’ and ‘undocumented’ when referencing them. The use of the terms such as ‘“illegal immigrants,” “boat people” or even “asylum seekers” is problematic’ (O’Doherty & Lecouteur, 2007, p. 2). At the heart of such terms are the citizenship, legal status and intentions of the newcomers (O’Doherty & Lecouteur, 2007).
Third, the current study contributes to ongoing conversations about race in T&T (Kelly, 2023; Potter et al., 2010; Rampersad, 2012). Based on the skin tone measurement developed by Project on Ethnicity and Race in Latin America, where 1 represents the lightest skin tone and 11 represents the darkest skin tone, the mean colour of skin for Venezuelans is 4.17; for Trinbagonians, it is 6.74 (Painter II et al., 2020). Xenophobic attitudes within host countries have been cited as a source of hostility directed toward Venezuelan migrants (Wallace & Mortley, 2021). In T&T, more specifically, the discrimination has been attributed to personal characteristics such as ‘being culturally different, light-skinned, [and] being different in nationality’ (Herbert, 2021, p. 18). Herbert’s (2021) research reveals, the skin colour of Venezuelan migrants is a factor in the treatment they receive by the national population. It can be argued that this situation is tied to the notion of ‘racism in reverse’, defined as ‘the concept of the superiority of the previously oppressed race’ (Rubin, 1962, p. 434), which according to Rubin (1962), developed in some formerly British colonies.
Persons who are part of the dominant race—one that has been historically oppressed—perpetuate the experience they once had against the other racial group that is representative of the former oppressor. In this case, White Venezuelan migrants or White-presenting Venezuelan migrants are victims of discrimination and victimised due to the colour of their skin (Herbert, 2021). This could help to explain why the attitudes reflected in the newspaper articles toward Venezuelan migrants exist in a realm of dehumanisation. According to Reny et al. (2020), the ‘feelings of outgroup resentment or threat’ (p. 9) directed toward Venezuelan migrants are possibly tied to their race, ethnicity, and nationality. Reny et al. (2020) contend, racial resentment ‘is associated with generalised outgroup prejudice and correlated with anti-Latino attitudes’ (p. 9). In essence, the newspaper articles revealed a subcurrent of indirect or veiled racism directed toward Venezuelan migrants.
Recommendations
Newspaper portrayals of Venezuelan migrants can—wittingly or unwittingly—be used to further justify the treatment they receive. Taking into account the results of the study, subsequent analysis and the media’s ability to influence immigration-related matters (McCann et al., 2023), as a matter of urgency, we offer recommendations grounded in human rights principles. These recommendations pertain to the media as well as the State.
Limitations and Future Research
The current research centred on the attitude toward Venezuelan migrants in T&T through an examination of newspaper articles. One limitation is that the data were restricted to a one-year period. Also, although we looked at all of the mainstream newspapers in T&T, the sample size might still be considered relatively small. Further, we did not include social media content and individual perspectives of the public. Additionally, as the research relied on qualitative methods, other scholars who apply the same methodology could view the data differently, given their background and identity. Future research would benefit from the use of quantitative data collection and analysis, which would allow for the generalisability of the findings. Although we did not directly examine race and the impact of colonisation on current attitudes toward migrants, it is a topic that arose within the research and can, by itself, be the subject of future investigations.
Conclusion
The cultural context of Venezuelan migrants in T&T is complex and sensitive. The sentiments captured in the mainstream newspapers in T&T were overwhelmingly negative. As the media play a unique role in signalling the receptivity of Venezuelan migrants among Trinbagonians, as well as national policies and legislation, the media’s framing of Venezuelan migrants is of utmost significance. Whether or not the mainstream newspapers recognise it, media depictions of Venezuelan migrants contribute to migrants’ finding themselves in a precarious place in T&T.
Footnotes
Data Availability Statement
The data will be shared on reasonable request to the corresponding author.
Declaration of Conflicting Interests
The authors declared no potential conflicts of interest with respect to the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article.
Funding
The authors received no financial support for the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article.