Exploring Gender Norms and Dynamics in Women’s Community Australian Rules Football Spaces: A Protocol for a Mixed-Methods Research Design

Abstract

Following the inaugural game of the Women’s Australian Football League (AFLW), the number of women’s community teams has grown exponentially. This increased presence of women’s teams in formerly male-dominated clubs has highlighted gender inequities that create barriers to participation, reducing women’s access to the manifold social and emotional health benefits associated with community sport. This protocol paper outlines a novel, strengths-based, doctoral study examining gender equity in Women’s community-level Australian Rules football. This project aims to explore experiences and practices of gender norms and expectations within women’s Australian Rules Football community clubs in Western Australia (WA). The project will employ a phased, mixed-methods approach, underpinned by queer theory and feminist frameworks, to better understand the socio-cultural context of embedded attitudes and values regarding gender roles, norms, and expectations. The three phases of the study will comprise: (a) scoping review; (b) quantitative survey; (c) embedded case studies examining clubs with strong inclusion policies for their women’s teams. Unobtrusive methods (observation and audit) and participatory methods (group-based modelling workshops and in-depth, semi-structured interviews) will be utilised in phase three. The findings from each phase will be integrated using complexity theory to highlight the multiple intertwining relationships between complex cultural and gendered phenomena and their operationalisation in community club contexts. In doing so, the researchers aim to develop a template to empower clubs to address inequities in their unique contexts and facilitate all genders’ access to the social, mental and health benefits of community Australian Rules football participation.

Plain Language Summary

Australian Rules Football embodies mateship, sportsmanship and fun, thus capturing qualities inherent to the Australian spirit. There is an increased presence of women’s teams in formerly male-dominated clubs. This has highlighted gender inequities that create barriers to women’s participation, thus reducing their access to the many social and emotional health benefits associated with participating in community sport. This project aims to understand gender norms and expectations within community women’s Australian Rules Football clubs in Western Australia (WA). This protocol paper will describe the methods of a 3-phase study. The project will use both qualitative and quantitative methods using a range of academic theories to better understand contextual, club, and individual attitudes and values around gender roles, norms, and expectations. Phase one will comprise a scoping review. Phase two is a survey. Phase three will consist of case studies. Case studies will involve observation, audit, and participatory methods, including workshops and interviews. This approach will highlight the many intertwining aspects of gendered relations in football spaces to better understand and address the roots of gender inequities in AFLW contexts and to enhance people of all genders’ access to community sport.

Keywords

inclusion diversity gender sport Australian Rules football women transgender masculinities

Introduction

Inclusion in sport is a human right (Australian Human Rights Commission, 2019; Messing et al., 2021; Play by the Rules, 2023; UNESCO, 2015). However, in Australia, the Sex Discrimination Act 1984 does not adequately protect women, or people of any other sex/gender identity, from exclusion from sports based on gender (Australian Federal Government, 2024). Despite increases in women’s participation in sport, structural barriers to full and equitable inclusion remain (Hopkins et al., 2022; Jeanes et al., 2021; Meier et al., 2021; Morgan, 2021; Staurowsky et al., 2020; Vaquero-Cristóbal et al., 2024). Women’s teams may not be given equitable access to club space and facilities or represented equally in club rooms (Jeanes et al., 2021). Across professional sports and around the world, elite female athletes have fewer financial opportunities than their male counterparts (ABC, 2023a, 2023b; Cornes, 2023; Harris & Trussell, 2023; Morgan, 2021; Poppelwell-Scevak, 2022; Staurowsky et al., 2020; Vaquero-Cristóbal et al., 2024). This lag in gender equity is symptomatic of women’s historical exclusion in sport and other facets of society (Meier et al., 2021), and while progress is being made to close these gaps, it is slow. This was exemplified in the recent 2024 Summer Olympic Games in Paris.

Despite achieving gender parity for the first time in history in Paris 2024 (Insight, 2024) gender equity issues pervaded media coverage before and during The Games. Leading up to Paris 2024, Intersex athlete Caster Semenya, who was subject to gender testing, won her legal battle against World Athletics, with the European Court of Human Rights ruling that restrictions on her participation as an Intersex woman were discriminatory (James, 2023). Lia Thomas, a transgender swimmer, was unable to challenge World Aquatics on their restrictions on transgender women’s inclusion in swimming (Ingle, 2024). Olympic boxer Imane Khelif’s opponent forfeited, questioning Khelif’s gender eligibility based on the strength of her punch (Schultz, 2024; Thorpe & Storr, 2024; Tjønndal, 2024). This sparked global and social media debate about gender identity and inclusion in elite sport (Schultz, 2024; Thorpe & Storr, 2024; Tjønndal, 2024). The debate highlighted erroneous claims of “protection of women” in this debate (Schultz, 2024), the prevalence of abuse in women’s sport (Thorpe & Storr, 2024), and the ethical implications of policing of gender for all women (Carptenter, 2024; Schultz, 2024; Thorpe & Storr, 2024). While it may seem a leap from the Olympic stage to the Australian community sports, inclusion and representation at the elite level inspire women to participate in community sports, like Australian Rules Football (Willson et al., 2018).

Australian Rules football clubs are at the heart of many Australian communities, providing a space for socialising, camaraderie, competition, fitness, and fun. In 2017, the governing body of the sport, the Australian Football League (AFL) held their inaugural elite Women’s (AFLW) game. Following this, women and girls’ participation in community Australian Rules football grew from 38,041 in 2016 (AFL, 2016) to 44,650 in 2017 (AFL, 2017), a 54% increase. Participation in women’s and girls’ community football has continued to grow, with over 75,000 registrations at the end of 2023 (AFL, 2023); a further 68% increase. The exponential growth in Australian rules football reflects many benefits of community sports, including increased physical and mental health (Eather et al., 2023), and enhanced connectedness, an important protective factor of social and emotional health (Burns et al., 2020; Eather et al., 2023; Sabbe et al., 2020). Australian Rules football also promotes values like mateship and good sportsmanship (Hess, 2000; Sanders, 2015). Despite the growing popularity of women’s football, hegemonic masculinity, sexism, and other forms of gender-based discrimination remain ubiquitous.

Inclusive practices in AFLW have illuminated exclusionary hegemonic norms and practices relating to gender (Fox & Paradies, 2020; Riseman, 2022) and sexuality (ABC, 2023b) in the broader AFL. The high profile of the AFL and its perpetuation of traditional hypermasculinity attracts significant media attention, which often highlights spectator and club involvement in and endorsement of racist (Fox & Paradies, 2020; Willson et al., 2018), sexist (Willson et al., 2018), homophobic (Storr et al., 2022), and violent (Willson et al., 2018) behaviours, as well as misuse of alcohol and other drugs (Curtis & Roberts, 2022; Thompson et al., 2011). There is significant debate around gender-related issues, including the gender pay gap (Fox & Paradies, 2020), and the exclusion of trans and gender-diverse (TGD) participants (Fox & Paradies, 2020; Riseman, 2022). These norms filter down from the AFL to the community level (Fox & Paradies, 2020; Willson et al., 2018). Women’s community clubs thus provide a microcosmic lens through which to investigate epochal attitudes towards different genders’ participation and involvement in Australian Rules community football.

The AFL is the peak body for Australian Rules football and is considered a leader in setting the example for other national sporting organisations in gender inclusion (Stewart et al., 2021). The AFL recognises the importance of sustained participation, and creating a sense of genuine inclusion and belonging for women and girls is pivotal to the sport and has hence introduced the Women’s Football Vision 2021-2030 (AFL, 2021). With this vision statement, the AFL commits to monetarily and socially investing in developing women’s football at the community and elite levels (AFL, 2021). The AFL is also dedicated to the inclusion of TGD people at the community level. While the inclusion of TGD players remains contentious at the elite level, the AFL ostensibly supports and encourages people of all genders to compete at the community level. The AFL’s gender diversity policy states, “It is the AFL’s view that in community football social inclusion has a greater priority than concerns about possible competitive advantages if gender diverse players participate” (AFL, 2020 [p. 2] bold in original). Despite the existence of these policies, preliminary research demonstrates that clubs may lack the physical infrastructure and cultural norms and values to make these spaces genuinely inclusive for cisgender women (Jeanes et al., 2021). The inclusion of TGD at the community level has not yet been examined, though evidence suggests it is likely that exclusionary public discourses discourage TGD people from participating in community-level football (Stewart et al., 2021). There is a paucity of research exploring how these policies are implemented and experienced by various stakeholders in situ. This research project aims to enable a deeper understanding of the social and material impacts of policies and discourses about gender in AFLW for people wishing to participate in community football.

Researcher Positionality

This research is, in part, borne of the lead author’s personal experiences. While playing competitive amateur football in Western Australia in 2021, I observed first-hand hegemonic gender dynamics and expectations that, though unwritten, were firmly adhered to. Sometimes, gender dynamics were subtle, such as encouragement like “Come on, ladies!,” which left me feeling excluded. At other times, sexism was more overt, like on Ladies Day, where the coach mockingly wanted to wear a dress and lipstick and complained when he found out that this event clashed with a pub crawl with the men’s team. Multiple, cumulative incidents of homophobia, sexism, and social policing of rigid gender roles resulted in me leaving competitive community-level football in favour of social, non-competitive football.

As a non-binary person, I have a vested interest in trans-inclusion in community sports like Australian Rules. However, I observed that it was not only queer folks who were impeded by these strict, deeply embedded gender norms. Cisgender, heterosexual men and women also did not feel welcome if they did not subscribe to the rigid gender dynamics that were ubiquitous within the club. I have now joined a team that is openly inclusive of all genders, though there is room for improvement in the equity of this inclusion. Thus, the researcher’s personal motivations for exploring this phenomenon are to develop inclusion guidelines to work towards a world where anyone can join their local football team without fear of exclusion based on their gender or non-adherence to strict gender roles.

Statement of Significance

Community sport and its associated benefits should be accessible to everyone regardless of gender. There is some research exploring how hegemonic masculine ideals in Australian Rules football impact gender-based connectivity, involvement, and conversely, exclusion, in community football clubs (Bahfen et al., 2017; Bevan et al., 2021; Booth & Pavlidis, 2023; Caldwell, 2023; Carson et al., 2021; Drummond et al., 2022; Glazbrook et al., 2024; Kernebone et al., 2022; O’Connor et al., 2022; Pavlidis et al., 2023; Rawlings & Anderson, 2024; Richards et al., 2022; Waitt & Clifton, 2015; Willson et al., 2018). However, at present, research does not adequately capture the contextual, complex, and nuanced nature of the gendered impacts of inclusion and exclusion in practice and is usually focused on the exclusion of single genders (e.g., certain men or women). There are significant cultural, social, and health-related implications of gendered interactions for individuals who wish to participate in this sport. The present paper outlines the protocol for a novel study which will provide a snapshot of these pertinent cultural phenomena and suggest how clubs may begin implementing policies to increase inclusion and participation for people of all genders.

This study aims to examine existing paradigms of gender inclusion in sport in practice, highlight how they operate in Australian Rules football clubs, and identify practical ways to work towards gender equity. This study is the first of its kind, drawing on extant literature in a scoping review to examine contextual factors, Australia-wide attitudes towards the inclusion of all genders, and conduct close case studies. To the authors’ knowledge the former two approaches have not been conducted in this setting, and case studies are limited to Victorian clubs. In addition, to the author’s knowledge, studies have not been strengths-based nor have they provided real-time solutions from successful clubs. Lastly, the use of complexity theory to draw all studies in this project together will hopefully enable understanding of the complex relationships within and between Australian Rules football clubs (i.e., league, club, team, and individual levels) and provide a flexible template for adopting strategies that will work in clubs’ unique contexts. While this project focuses on inclusion in women’s Australian Rules football, it is anticipated that findings may prove useful across football codes and other sports locally and globally.

Aims and Objectives

This 3-year public health Doctor of Philosophy (PhD) project aims to investigate how gender and gender norms are embedded, understood, upheld, explored, and challenged, within the context of Women’s Australian Rules Football at the community level. To achieve this, the proposed objectives are to:

Understand the socio-cultural context of Women’s Australian Rules Football,

Explore gender norms and dynamics in the team, club, and league contexts,

Investigate individuals’ experiences of gender and how it is performed within the Australian Rules football elite, state and community contexts,

Identify factors that enhance and impede gender inclusivity with other socio-demographic intersections; and

Develop guidelines for clubs to foster gender inclusion at all levels of women’s community football, including the inclusion of trans and gender-diverse individuals.

Methods and Analysis

Given the relative novelty of women’s teams and the established norms and attitudes embedded within Australian Rule Football culture, this project employs a multistage, exploratory sequential mixed-methods design (Fetters et al., 2013). Qualitative methods will be used to explore the novel aspects. Quantitative methods will be used to examine the scale and breadth of the culture’s expected and contested values towards gender inclusion. This phasic study will build sequentially, with each phase informing the next (see Figure 1). In the final analysis, the data from each phase will be merged and analysed using complexity theory (see Fetters et al., 2013). Prior to commencing phase one, an advisory committee was formed to ensure the research’s practicality and real-world utility.

Figure 1.

Project overview.

Advisory Group

This research is designed to enhance inclusion, participation, and cultural richness of women’s Australian Rules football in Western Australian community clubs. The advisory committee comprises nine individuals with diverse experience and expertise in Australian Rules Football. Members are current and former players, executive and committee members, people of diverse demographic backgrounds, former umpires, a regional representative, a state-level representative, and key researchers. The group is engaged to help understand the current climate surrounding contemporary gender inclusion issues in Australian Rules Football clubs. They provide insights and perspectives to assist with study design, recruitment, data collection and translation of project findings. This ensures that this research meets the needs of the stakeholders it wishes to serve. The group will be provided Terms of Reference which will outline that their involvement is in an advisory capacity.

All committee members will be reimbursed for their time based on the Consumer Rate proposed by the National Mental Health Commission’s (NMHC) Consumer, Family, Carer and Community Paid Partnership Policy (NMHC, 2019, p. 7). Each member is estimated to contribute 6 to 8 hr of consultation throughout the project.

Theoretical Frameworks

Queer Theory and Intersectionality

Queer Theory challenges sociocultural norms around gender and sexuality and will be used as a framework to unpack and explore ideas of heteronormativity and homosociality (e.g., Sanders, 2015). In addition, as this study seeks to understand the interactions between gender and other intersecting identities and contexts, a Kyriarchal feminist framework (Schüssler Fiorenza, 1992) will be adopted. A Kyriarchal framework explains how intersecting identities may result in privilege or oppression on various demographic axes. Using kyriarchy will enable understanding of how gender operates at the individual, interpersonal, and community levels, and in relation to other demographic and cultural circumstances (e.g., income, race, ability, religion) to explore privilege, oppression and inclusion. These theories will guide analysis at the individual phases of data collection.

It should be noted that gender is defined variously as a social construct, performance, a set of societal ideas associated with sex (Butler, 2020), and something elusive, the exact definition of which is contentious and has not yet been satisfactorily explained (Bornstein, 2017). While such theoretical discursive analyses of gender are evident across disciplines, prevalent heteronormative notions, expectations, and roles associated with gender continue to influence and govern most competitive sports from the elite level (McDowell & Schaffner, 2011; Riseman, 2022; Sanders, 2015; Storr et al., 2022; Wanneberg, 2011; Willson et al., 2018) to school sport (Storr et al., 2022). In this study, gender is understood as a socially and culturally constructed identity. It is distinct from biological sex, which refers to genitals, chromosomes and secondary sex characteristics. Inclusion refers to the degree to which sports club stakeholders feel welcomed, respected, and able to participate equitably. Diversity is defined as the presence of varied social, cultural, and individual backgrounds within the club community.

Complexity Theory

Models of health and identity are often used to understand the complex, intertwining contexts that constantly operate for individuals (e.g., Brofenbrenner, 1979; Golden & Earp, 2012), shaping and reshaping their identities, beliefs, attitudes, and values. However, these models are static and often fail to capture the complex, dynamic relationships between various moving parts of a healthy ecosystem over time, specifically neglecting the historical factors that inform current policy and culture. Given the multi-faceted and dynamic contexts operating within the AFL and community Australian Rules football (Salmon & McLean, 2020), this research project will employ Complexity Theory to capture the nuances of these interactions.

Complexity Theory is a meta-theory that explores complex, multi-dimensional phenomena with interacting components that give rise to seemingly unlikely patterns (Ramalingam et al., 2008). The central tenets of Complexity Theory are presented here as an amalgam of Salmon and McLean’s (2020) and Ramalingam et al.’s (2008) delineations of the theory. Complexity Theory is used to explain systems that comprise multiple components. Interactions between components are dynamic and do not achieve equilibrium; rather they are non-linear, in which input and output may be asymmetrical (e.g., small events can produce large, unintended, or seemingly “random” outcomes). These interactions are multiple, complex (rich), short-range, and inevitably create positive (responses that perpetuate behaviours/outcomes) and negative feedback loops (responses that slow or stop a behaviour or outcome). Individual components are not “aware” of the system’s overall operation or of its interactions with other systems. In addition, complex systems are open, with blurred or ill-defined boundaries. Importantly, the system’s history affects its present and future states. Salmon and McLean have begun to delineate the extraordinary complexity of the overall system of Australian Rules Football.

In the present study, results from all three phases will be merged, and the above model will be applied to better understand the social dynamics that lead to gender inclusion (or exclusion) within the context of women’s community football (see the section below titled Data Synthesis).

Phases

The first phase of the study will investigate the broader Australian socio-cultural context of Australian Rules football. The unique and common gender-related issues for people of all genders and how these issues impact participation and inclusion will be explored. Phase one will consist of a scoping review (see Figure 1). Building on phase one, phase two will employ a nationwide survey to investigate attitudes about gender and inclusion at the club level. The third and final phase will consist of an embedded case study to identify structural, interpersonal, and individual factors that enable and inhibit inclusion in community Australian Rules Football clubs for people of all genders.

Phase 1

Scoping Review

The scoping review will address objectives 1 to 3 of the project

Overarching question

How does gender operate and inform norms in professional and community Australian Rules football clubs?

Specifically,

What roles, formal and informal do men, women, trans, and gender-diverse people currently hold?

What prevailing gender norms are evident?

Apart from injuries, how are bodies discussed in terms of gender?

How are men, women, trans, and gender-diverse people included and involved?

Prior to commencing the study, the research team searched the Open Science Framework (OSF) and the Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis Extension for Scoping Reviews (PRISMA) registries to ensure no similar scoping reviews have been conducted. Once confirmed, the study was registered on OSF (https://osf.io/dkj9b/overview). This scoping review aligns with PRISMA’s protocol (Page, McKenzie, et al., 2021; Page, Moher, et al., 2021).

The review follows Peters et al.’s (2020) 9-Stage approach to scoping reviews, enhanced with a team-based approach and consultation of the advisory committee at stages four, five, and seven, where members will provide written feedback in their professional capacity (Levac et al., 2010; Westphaln et al., 2021). In stage seven, a high-level summary of the publication will be sent to the advisory committee members for review, and they will have the opportunity to provide their feedback for integration into the final publication.

Relevant academic literature will be sought through database searches, reference list hand-searches and consultation with key stakeholders. A search strategy will be developed in consultation with the University’s faculty librarian and trialled in PsycINFO (see Figure 2).

Figure 2.

Scoping review search strategy performed in PsycInfo.

Once a successful search strategy determined, the researcher will replicate it in Scopus, ProQuest Central, Informit and SportDiscus. Grey literature will also be sought on the AFL’s website, including policies and strategies related to gender inclusion. Key stakeholders and advisory group members will also be contacted to suggest relevant references.

Inclusion and Exclusion Criteria

Eligible records will be published in English in the last 5 years and refer specifically to gender (i.e., not merely biological sex) within the context of Australian Rules football at professional/elite, semi-professional and community football.

All titles will be screened against the eligibility criteria. Abstracts will then be screened, followed by full articles. The literature retained will meet all eligibility criteria, answer at least one of the research questions and be agreed upon by the research team.

Materials will be managed in Covidence during the data collection and screening phases and shortlisted materials will be managed in Excel and NVivo.

Phase 2

Phase two will address project objectives 2 to 4 and will be informed by findings from phase one. This will be guided by theory and other issues identified in the literature. An example of the former is that if several studies discuss hegemonic masculinity, survey items will be sought from existing scales or developed to examine stakeholders’ endorsement of masculine and feminine stereotypes. Regarding current issues, if the literature suggests there are issues with resourcing and facilities for women’s teams, questions regarding stakeholder perceptions of the division of facilities and resources (e.g., training equipment) will be included.

Online Survey

To understand the national context enabling or hindering gender inclusion in Australian Rules football, a quantitative online survey will investigate key stakeholders’ attitudes and values. It will address the following research questions:

What are the attitudes of Australian Rules Football club members towards the involvement and full inclusion of:

cisgender men

cisgender women

transgender men,

transgender women, and

non-binary people

at all levels of club operations and gameplay.

What are the prevailing gender norms within the context of Australian Rules football clubs?

How do Australian Rules Football club members perceive how others in their club and the broader Australian Rules Football view gender norms/stereotypes?

Phase 2 Hypotheses

H0: There will be no differences in gendered attitudes between people of different genders.

HA1: There will be gendered differences in perceptions of inclusion between cisgender men, cisgender women, and transgender/gender diverse individuals. Specifically, cisgender men will likely be most resistant to gender inclusion of all other genders. Cisgender women will be supportive of gender inclusion for other cisgender women, but less supportive of the inclusion of trans and gender diverse people. Trans and gender-diverse people will endorse the inclusion of all genders.

HA2: Those who endorse gender stereotypes will be less supportive of the inclusion of women, trans and gender-diverse people in Australian Rules Football.

HA3: Those who have been excluded based on gender will have more supportive attitudes towards gender inclusion.

Design

An online cross-sectional survey will be administered to a convenience sample. Questions will be informed by the findings of phase one. To ensure rigour, questions will be taken or adapted from validated measures such as The National Community Attitudes towards Violence Against Women Survey (NCAS; Webster et al., 2017) and measures that address attitudes towards same-sex attraction and gender diversity (Burns et al., 2023). Questions assessing attitudes towards transgender and gender-diverse people will be taken from the validated Transgender Attitudes and Beliefs Scale (Jones et al., 2024).

The survey will be piloted for content and face validity by the advisory group.

Given that the population size is difficult to determine for stakeholders in community-based sports, we have used other surveys of similar populations to estimate the sample (e.g., Burns et al., 2020). This is also impacted by limited resources for this PhD project. It is anticipated a minimum of 300 participants will be recruited for this study, as this sample is feasible to obtain within the study’s resources and timeframe, and large enough to conduct meaningful statistical analysis.

Recruitment

The research team will seek assistance from state and national AFL, community peak bodies (e.g., the West Australian Football [WAF]) to connect with clubs and help distribute the survey online. Recruitment may include links on peak bodies and club websites, targeted Facebook advertising, influencer sharing, radio appearances, and flier campaigns. Popular football fan sites, like BigFooty.com may also be asked to share the study. Given the nature of the questions and the controversy surrounding this topic in the current Australian Rules football climate, it is likely that responses are subject to sampling bias. Respondents are likely to be polarised progressives or conservatives with strong views, and possibly participants with more centrist or moderate views will be missing. Involving the peak bodies listed above, which have active social media engagement and broad followings, is anticipated to capture a broader cross-section of this population. Advertising materials will target a range of genders and views to help encourage potential participants. Lastly, a prize draw to win one of 10 $50 AUD gift cards is offered to further incentivise participation.

Participants

Participants will be key stakeholders, defined as individuals aged 16+ who have been or are currently involved in an Australian Rules football club at any level. Players, executive/board members, volunteers (e.g., umpires, scorers, canteen assistants etc.), administrators, regular spectators, parents, managers, coaches, and/or sponsors are eligible to participate. As this is an intersectional study, further demographic information, including age, gender, sex, years playing, suburb, ethnicity, and highest level of education, will be collected. The team will endeavour to ensure all genders are represented with enough power to meaningfully include all groups in statistical analysis.

Data Collection and Analysis

The online survey will be administered via the secure Qualtrics platform and analysis will be conducted using IBM SPSS Statistics. Descriptive statistics such as means, frequencies, and percentages, will be used for preliminary exploration of demographic data. Alpha will be set at .05. Data will be tested for normality. Pearson’s Chi-Squared and Pearson’s correlations will be used to test hypotheses, and Bonferroni adjustments will be used where necessary. Cohen’s d will be used to determine effect sizes. Regression analyses will be employed to predict relationships between variables.

Open-ended responses will be analysed using Conventional Content Analysis (Elo & Kyngäs, 2008; Erlingsson & Brysiewicz, 2017; Hsieh & Shannon, 2005.)

Phase 3

Phase Three involves embedded case studies and addresses objectives 2 to 5. Aspects of this phase will be informed by the findings from phases one and two. For example, interview questions will be developed from findings from phases one and two based on of gender and belonging within the Australian Rule football context. In addition, if findings from phases one and two indicate that space and resource allocation are potentially unequal, then the spatial analysis will capture how clubs who are committed to gender inclusion address these issues. Similarly, the club audit and group-based modelling workshops will assess club priorities, policies, and strategies for gender inclusion, participation, and player retention. Quantitative findings from the first two phases regarding attitudes towards gender inclusion and how these are experienced and practiced in club culture, will inform questions in the one-on-one interviews and the focus of observations.

Embedded Case Studies

The overarching research question guiding the embedded case studies is How is gender embedded and valued in Australian Rules football clubs in Western Australia?

Embedded case studies will allow exploration of multiple aspects of club operations and key stakeholders’ experiences to create a more holistic understanding of gendered social realities within club culture and climate (Liamputtong, 2020; Shaw, 2019; Yin, 2014). The case studies will combine unobtrusive and participatory methods of data collection (see Figure 1).

Recruitment: Clubs in Western Australia with an active women’s amateur team will be purposively recruited. The researchers will recruit :two to four clubs for the case studies. If feasible, a regional club will be selected for participation as part of this phase. Purposive recruitment will occur via the researchers and Advisory Group networks which span clubs across the diverse state of Western Australia. Complexity Theory provides a means to understand specific phenomena in contained contexts (Ramalingam et al., 2008; Salmon & McLean, 2020), and the aim of these case studies is not necessarily to generalise the findings to all community Australian Rules Football clubs. Thus, a small number of in-depth case studies is sufficient for this project. Recruitment challenges for this phase may be that clubs do not often trust outsiders to conduct research. Clubs will be fully informed of the benefits of this research to their club, including a bespoke document that captures their progress to date, and a $500 gift card to put towards equipment for their women’s team. As the lead researcher is part of the Australian Rules football community, it is anticipated that this will enable rapport-building and a mutual understanding between club CEOs and the research team.

Unobtrusive Methods

Club Audit and Observational Data: The research focus for the unobtrusive methods is: how are attitudes and values about different genders’ inclusion communicated through the spatial, bureaucratic, and social organisation, in the daily operations of local Australian Rules football community clubs in WA?

Unobtrusive methods, including an audit and simple observation, will be used to reveal how gender is performed, valued, and integrated within several unique Australian Rules football community clubs’ discourses and physical spaces. Existing audit tools that assess gender and inclusion (e.g., City of Melbourne, 2024; Rainbow Health Australia, 2016; Royal College of Speech and Language Therapists UK., 2024; Women’s Health East, 2015) will be utilised, these will be confirmed after phase two is completed. The audit will collate clubs’ written records, such as existing policies, newsletters, and documented initiatives (Liamputtong, 2020; Yin, 2014), and clubs’ social media posts (Yin, 2014) will be reviewed. Additionally, observational data from training sessions, game days and social events at will be collected. These observations aim to document naturalistic behavioural, and attitudinal data from the “undisturbed social environment” (Liamputtong, 2020, p. 99). Kelleher (1993) astutely noted that unobtrusive methods “help restore meaning and context to confessions of belief, attitude and knowledge” (in Liamputtong, 2020, p. 100). These methods will be triangulated with participatory methods to ensure that club practices and behaviours are consistent with the ethos of the club.

Analysis of unobtrusive methods: CDA will be used to analyse the documents, and any discourse noted in the observational data. Observations will be coded for narratives of authority and power, agency and formality (Paltridge, 2012a, 2012b), insult and innuendo (McDowell & Schaffner, 2011), implications, and omissions (McDowell & Schaffner, 2011; Paltridge, 2012b). Spoken data may be analysed for tone, intonation, inflection, emphasis, pause or hesitation, and laughter (Paltridge, 2012a). A spatial analysis of the grounds will also be conducted (see Jeanes et al., 2021; Liamputtong, 2020). This will be informed by the literature examined in phase one, though it will likely include a focus on how space is divided and utilised. It may examine how gender is incorporated into the physical space including allocation of training spaces, as well as how gender is represented in clubhouses (i.e., gender distribution represented in trophy cabinets, honour rolls, and pictures) and whether there is equitable access to changing facilities (e.g., Jeanes et al., 2021).

Participatory Methods

The focus research question for the participatory methods is: How do community football club members experience gender inclusion for themselves and others in their club?

Participatory methods will be used to explore participants’ own experiences of gender. This will include Group-Based Modelling workshops (Allender et al., 2021; Millar et al., 2023). This method will enable a deep understanding of each club’s complex and unique histories, issues and the enablers and barriers to the club having a gender-inclusive environment (Millar et al., 2023). Results from the workshops will be triangulated with one-on-one semi-structured interviews to ensure participants can also raise issues and share personal experiences anonymously (Liamputtong, 2020).

Group-Based Modelling: Systems Thinking is a core component of complexity theory. Given the complex nature of the Australian Rules football community club systems (Salmon & McLean, 2020) and their “messy” problems (Ramalingam et al., 2008), there are likely manifold factors that contribute to gendered experiences in unique club contexts; many of these factors will not be easily identifiable (Ramalingam et al., 2008; Salmon & McLean, 2020). Group-based modelling is a participatory solutions-focused research method that brings together various key stakeholders to identify issues and generate specific, appropriate actions to address identified local issues within their unique context (Allender et al., 2021; Millar et al., 2023; Skouteris et al., 2015). Causal Loop Diagrams (CLDs) help the identification and mapping of the most prominent factors influencing complex issues within a system and any feedback loops that may contribute to maintaining a system (Millar et al., 2023). These CLDs will enable clubs to identify and address issues of particular importance in their unique contexts.

Data collection and analysis: This project will closely follow the collection and analysis methods described by Millar et al. (2023) each case-study club will be engaged for a minimum of 2 weeks to collect data and run participatory group-based modelling workshops. Key stakeholders representing all genders (i.e., cis and trans men, cis and trans women, and non-binary people) involved in the club, across all levels of involvement, will be invited and purposely selected to participate in these workshops. For each club, two workshops will be held at a place that is comfortable and accessible for the participants. The first workshop will be 3-hr and ask participants to reflect on the question, “What are the enablers and barriers to equal gender inclusion in your club?” Presentations, activities, individual reflection, and small group discussions will guide the development of the CLD. Notetakers will be present in the room and their field notes will be used to refine the CLD between workshops. A representative from the club will attend and provide support to the facilitators and participants. Ground rules help establish a safe environment for group discussions (Liamputtong, 2020). To ensure participant safety, experienced facilitators will set and impose group rules. In the unlikely instance of participant distress or dissent, breaks will be offered, and the option for that individual to withdraw from the group will be reiterated. The research team consists of experienced facilitators who regularly run large workshops and classes and manage diverse viewpoints in discussions.

The research team will utilise the purpose-designed software Systems Thinking in Community Knowledge Exchange (Deakin University, 2026) to analyse data collected in the workshops and map these issues, thematically. CLDs generated from the software will be presented to participants in the second workshop. Workshop two will be 2-hr and held no more than a fortnight after workshop one. In this workshop, the research team will present the CLD for feedback and review and facilitate ideas for local priority actions for implementation by the clubs. Following this, the final CLD, along with information taken from observations and spatial analysis will be collated into a report and given to the club.

Semi-Structured Interviews: The research overarching question for the semi-structured interviews is What are club members’ personal experiences of gender in their local club?

Semi-structured interviews will provide individual perspectives on the central gender issues in each case-study club. (King & Hugh-Jones, 2019) As every member of the AFL is considered important for the culture of the game (Hess, 2000), and to ensure accurate and in-depth analysis of approximately 10 key stakeholders from each case study club such as players, executives and board members, spectators, staff, and volunteers, will be invited to participate in these interviews.

Findings from phases one and two, the audit, and Group-Based Modelling sessions will inform the questions used in the semi-structured interviews. These questions will integrate and build upon previous phases and likely investigate personal experiences of gender inclusion/exclusion, gender-based rites of passage and gendered expectations roles and norms. Interviews will last 45 to 60 min and be audio recorded. Data will be managed in NVivo.

Thematic Analysis: The researchers will employ Braun and Clarke’s Reflexive Thematic Analysis (TA) procedure (Braun & Clarke, 2019, 2022; Braun et al., 2022). Interview transcripts will be analysed for initial codes line-by-line and then developed into secondary codes, which will be used to develop narrative themes (Braun & Clarke, 2022). Queer theory and Kyriarchy will guide these analyses and help to inform theme development. Braun and Clarke recognise that analysis is typically a continuum of inductive-deductive analysis (Braun & Clarke, 2021). As such, a detailed reflexive journal to ensure transparency of how these theories influence their analytical practices.

Data Synthesis

One of the greatest mistakes when dealing with a mess is not seeing its dimensions in their entirety, carving off a part, and dealing with this part as if it were a problem and then solving it as if it were a puzzle, all the while ignoring the linkages and connections to other dimensions of the mess. (Pidd, 1996 in Ramalingam et al., 2008, p. 11)

At the completion of the three phases, synthesis of the qualitative and quantitative data collected will be conducted using complexity theory. Complexity theory enables analysis of relationships between agents, relationships over time and historical catalysts for change, unexpected outcomes of actions and events, and complex “messy” systems (Ramalingam et al., 2008). It is thus well-suited to understanding the complex issues that may enable or hinder participation and inclusion of people of all genders in Australian Rules Football. In this study, Complexity Theory will assist the researchers in bringing together findings from phases one and two to provide context for the historical and current attitudes towards inclusion of men, women, non-binary, and transgender people in Australian Rules football. It will allow analysis of the case study data collected in phase three to understand the relationships between different agents at different levels of club life (i.e., executive, volunteers, spectators, players), who may or may not directly interact with one another and to what extent this impacts individuals’ sense of inclusion. In addition, it will synthesise policies, information on physical space allocation, communications, and social events to determine how clubs striving towards gender equity have attempted to address gender inequity in their unique contexts. Given that no two clubs are identical, there will be many alternative solutions depending on each club’s specific circumstances (Ramalingam et al., 2008). Using Complexity Theory to merge the quantitative and qualitative data from this project will allow the research team to explore multiple, dynamic solutions to solving these problems and create a guide or decision tree that may assist clubs in their quest for gender inclusion.

Rigour

From the conception of the research project, a reflexive journal has been kept, detailing relevant reflections and practices (Liamputtong, 2020; Orange, 2016). Therein, the author, discusses their attitudes and values toward gender and Australian Rules Football. This reflexive journal also provides an audit trail of the research and decision-making processes (Liamputtong, 2020). It is an integral tool, central to the development of this project, and serves as an important means to ensure credibility, dependability, and transparency, further increasing rigour.

Rigour is further embedded throughout the research project. The methodology and methods are grounded in evidence-based research. The research design is grounded in established theoretical frameworks (i.e., complexity theory, intersectional feminism, and queer theory). Triangulation is fundamental to the proposed research design. Multiple modes of triangulation are embedded into this research. For example, interdisciplinary triangulation (Liamputtong, 2020) is evident in that the research team come from various fields in health promotion, education, sexology, psychology and linguistics. The research team is also made up of diverse gender identities. Data source triangulation is also pivotal to the research design (Liamputtong, 2020). The project seeks to collate data from academic and grey literature, media, quantitative survey data, and the multiple sources collected in the fieldwork/embedded case studies.

During all phases, thick description of rich data will be ensured. The researcher will take field notes, photographs, and audio recordings. Member-checking is integral to rigorous, dependable, credible, and trustworthy qualitative research (Birt et al., 2016; Liamputtong, 2020; Locke & Ramakrishna Velamuri, 2009) and is employed in multiple ways throughout the project. For example, participants in the semi-structured interview will have the opportunity to review their transcripts (Birt et al., 2016; Liamputtong, 2020) and member-checking and participant approval of the CLDs is an essential part of the Group-Based Modelling (Millar et al., 2023). Selective member-checking will also precede any formal or informal publication of participants’ quotations and their interpretations (e.g., in the guidance documents; Locke & Ramakrishna Velamuri, 2009).

All qualitative data will be reported in accordance with the Consolidated criteria for reporting qualitative research (Tong et al., 2007) and the Standards for Reporting Qualitative Research (O’Brien et al., 2014).

Ethics

Ethics approval was granted Curtin University Ethics Committee before commencing research involving human participants HRE2024-0644. This study has been deemed low-risk by the Committee, and all care has been taken to minimise harm and discomfort. Phase one does not require ethics approval. For phase two, data collection will be anonymous. There is a slight risk that participants may experience discomfort answering questions that are likely to focus on attitudes and values related to their involvement in sports clubs. A list of support services will be provided in the Participant Information Form (PIF), which participants can download and access. This will also apply to phase three’s participatory methods. There is minimal risk of discomfort for the unobtrusive methods, though participants may feel self-conscious when being observed. However, as they are in public, it is likely that they will be behaving in a way that they deem publicly acceptable. Appropriate consent will be sought for each phase of research.

Consent

Participants are not recruited for phase one of the study. Individual information sheets will be developed for phases two and three of the projects. Information sheets with relevant information will be developed for each stakeholder group.

Consent in Phase Two

Recruitment material will direct potential participants to an online PIF outlining the research. Participants will be advised of the voluntary nature of this study and reminded of their right to withdraw at any time without consequence. Links to support services will be provided. Online consent will be sought before access to the survey is granted. Participants can simply close the survey if they wish to discontinue at any stage. Participants will also be informed that once the response has been submitted, data cannot be withdrawn, as there will be no way to identify their response.

Consent in Phase 3

Consent in Unobtrusive Methods

Consent will be gained at the club level to gain access to written, material and spatial data (Liamputtong, 2020), and at both club and team levels to participate in the observational data (Jeanes et al., 2021; Liamputtong, 2020). Club executives will provide consent for club participation in the case study, including the spatial analysis and club audit. Club members will be provided with detailed information outlining the aim and objectives of the study. A consent waiver will be sought for observations of games and social events (National Health and Medical Research Council [NHMRC], 2023, p. 21), while teams and individuals in the team will be offered the option to opt out of observation (NHMRC, 2023, p. 20). All clubs and individual participants will be de-identified. The actions and dialogue of individuals who opt out will not be recorded or reported.

Consent in Participatory Methods

Individuals will provide consent for participation in participatory activities (e.g., interviews, workshops etc.). Each participant will be assured that their confidentiality will be protected and informed of the voluntary nature of the study and their right to withdraw from the research. Explicit instructions on how to do this will be given in the information form and reiterated verbally. Additionally, observational data will be de-identified and will occur in generic settings such as training sessions. If there is any risk that a participant may be re-identifiable, the researchers will ensure any contextual clues, including any professional title (e.g., coach), are removed from the data before reporting.

Special Interest Groups

As people from many diverse backgrounds and abilities may be part of Western Australian football clubs (WAF, 2023), the research team will adopt a diversity-affirming approach and ensure that all aspects of the research are as inclusive, culturally safe, and accessible as possible. For example, holding meetings and workshops at accessible locations or online to reduce travel costs and stress, financially reimbursing the advisory committee consumer participants for their time and expertise, including ways to contribute to the research that do not require high literacy, and, where feasible, travelling to regional communities for the embedded case studies phase.

Community football women’s teams may include older adolescents; as such, participants may be aged 16 years or older. These individuals are considered equal members of the team. Young people have the right to voice their experiences and perspectives when policies may affect them (Hildebrand et al., 2015). Thus, mature minor consent (e.g., Hildebrand et al., 2015) will be sought for participants aged 16 to 17 years in phases two and three. These participants will be asked some questions about the research to determine whether they qualify as “mature” before participating.

Project Timeline

The project is expected to take 3 years to complete. The suggested timeline is outlined in Table 1.

Table 1.

Projected Project Timeline Over 3 Years.

Project timeline	April	May	June	July	Aug	Sept	Oct	Nov	Dec	Jan	Feb	Mar
Year 1
Review literature
Prepare candidacy
Phase 1
Scoping review
Ethics
Phase 2
Survey Development
Year 2
Survey Dissemination
Phase 3
Embedded Case Studies
Club audit and spatial analysis
Observational Data Collection
One-on-one interviews
STICK-E Workshops
Data Synthesis (Complexity Theory analysis)
Year 3
Complexity theory analysis/write-up.
Develop club reports
Develop overall guidance documents

Note. Orange shaded cells highlight the months in which each element of the study will take place.

Dissemination

Research information including findings will be published in academic papers, the final dissertation, and academic conferences. In addition, findings will be communicated through lay avenues, such as pieces in The Conversation and local radio broadcasts. All publications and results will be listed on the project’s website https://www.ceriph.org/exploring-gender-in-aflw-community-footballclubswa

Clubs involved in the study will be invited to share findings on their social media pages. Feedback may be communicated directly with the WAF and AFL.

Key stakeholders such as Advisory Group members, and football club executives will be consulted on other appropriate and effective avenues for dissemination to the broader football community.

Footnotes

ORCID iDs

Hanna Saltis

Sharyn Burns

Ethical Considerations

Ethics approval was granted by Curtin University Human Research and Ethics Committee HRE2024-0644.

Consent to Participate

For each phase was obtained. For phase one, consent was not relevant. For phase two, informed consent was provided by participants online before completing the survey. For phase three, consent was obtained from the club president for participation in the study. A consent waiver was obtained for game day and social observations. Opt-out consent was provided to players and coaches for training sessions, and signed, informed consent forms will be completed by participants for the interviews and workshops.

Author Contributions

HS developed the protocol, drafted the manuscript, incorporated feedback, and is the corresponding author. SB and JH supervised the protocol development, provided feedback on the protocol, and reviewed and edited this manuscript.

Funding

The authors disclosed receipt of the following financial support for the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article: This research was supported by the Commonwealth through an Australian Government Research Training Program Scholarship ().

Declaration of Conflicting Interests

The authors declared no potential conflicts of interest with respect to the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article.

Data Availability Statement

Data sharing not applicable to this article as no datasets were generated or analyzed during the current study.

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