Fictionalizing the Language of Power: A Comparative Study of Pakistani and Latin American Novels

Abstract

Latin American dictator fiction has a long tradition and is widely acclaimed in critical studies, while Pakistani dictator fiction began to emerge in recent years. The study is analytical and comparative research based on the contents of two culturally, historically, and geographically diverse novels—Mario Vargas Llosa’s The Feast of the Goat and Mohammad Hanif’s A Case of Exploding Mangoes so as to locate their common and contrasting aspects. It is a qualitative study and through content analysis, it finds convergences and divergences between a Latin American and a Pakistani dictator novel. A special emphasis of the study is on power, dictator portrayal, torture, resistance, retelling/rewriting history, and representation. The study concludes that where Llosa presents the detailed description of events related to the atrocious regime of Trujillo, Hanif presents a partial and not the whole view of Zia’s dictatorship. Llosa misses no opportunity to create the sentiments of detestation and wrath against the despotic rule and his language throbs with bitterness and becomes satiric while unveiling the dark aspects of the Trujillo regime. However, Hanif, instead of giving a detailed and direct portrayal of certain dark aspects and brutalities, gives just oblique references to them and even the events which he brings to the forefront are presented in a very light and humorous vein which fail to arouse the emotions of abhorrence and denouncement against the despotic rule.

Introduction

Pakistan’s political history is overshadowed by long tenures of despotic rule. This has been recounted in Pakistani fiction in English in recent years. Pakistani dictator fiction is in its budding phase whereas Latin American dictator fiction has a long tradition and is widely acclaimed in critical studies.

The dictator novel produced during the post-dictatorial period in Latin America gave a new dimension to the intersection of politics and the novel. This genre (which chose to write about the dictators) challenges the role of the dictator in Latin American society. It not only examines the rules of particular dictators but also analyses the abstract nature of authority figures. The postmodernist tradition of dictator novels coming from Latin America includes writers such as Jorge Mario Pedro Vargas Llosa from Peru and Gabriel José de la Concordia Garcia Marquez from Colombia.

Since fiction written about dictators in Pakistan is not as established a genre as it is in Latin America, the present study would not only compare this newly born genre with an established genre but also bring the Pakistani dictator novel into the critical limelight. This study would thus investigate the thematic and structural maturity of Pakistani dictator fiction in comparison with the traditions established in Latin American fiction. Latin America and Pakistan have had extended periods of dictatorship with Trujillo and Zia having the longest spans—Trujillo (1930–1961) and General Zia ul-Haq (1977–1988). Llosa strongly challenged Trujillo’s despotic rule and it is observed to what extent Hanif has condemned Zia’s dictatorship in his novel as compared to Llosa.

The Feast of the Goat is comparatively a recent work as compared to the other novels written on despotic regimes. Unlike other novels on Trujillo which used allegorical and magic-realist techniques, Llosa’s novel is a meticulously researched historical novel (Foley, 2008) . A Case of Exploding Mangoes is a recent novel dealing with the rule of a dictator, Zia, and his mysterious assassination with comedy and black humor. As the novel deals with the themes and issues related to dictatorship in Pakistan, it has been selected for comparison with The Feast of the Goat. The study also attempts to explore that to what extent Pakistani dictator fiction appears to be representative of and resistant to dictatorships in Pakistan, is influenced by Latin American tradition of this genre, and appraise the character of Pakistani fictionalized dictator against the portrait presented by Latin American novelist.

Review of Related Literature

Emergence and Development of Latin American Dictator Novel

Echevarría (1985) traces the history of the Latin American dictator novel to the 16th Century when writers such as Bernal Diaz del Castillo and Francisco Lopez de Gomara wrote accounts of Corte’s conquest of Mexico. He believes that Gomara’s book was very close, in structural terms, to the contemporary Latin American dictator novel. Then comes the modern dictator novel that originates, as Echevarría suggests, from Sarmiento’s Facundo published in 1845 (p. 206). Von Vacano (2019) considers Facundo is as a nascent dictator novel and he also holds the view that it is the very first novel of this type from Latin America. While taking into consideration the history of the dictator novel, Iber (2015) opines that there was no considerable development in this kind of novel during the Cold War period. He also suggests by referring to Mario Vargas Llosa and other scholarly figures that great literature is most often a reflection and result of crisis which the societies go through. The political circumstances in Latin America as observed and depicted by the writers like Boom—Fuentes, Garcia Marquez, Julio Cortazar, and Vargas Llosa, were quite dreary.

The dictatorial regimes in Latin America provided the necessary equipage for the quick development of this genre in literature. It is interesting to note that in a Latin American conference (1978), a group of novelists agreed to write novels on the dictators of their countries (Vargas, 2018). As a result, many writers produced various notable works like Reason of State (1974) by Alejo Carpentier, The Autumn of the Patriarch (1975) by Garcia Marquez, and a comparatively latest one The Feast of the Goat (2000) by Mario Vargas Llosa.

Fictionalized and Non-Fictionalized Pakistani Dictators

Military regimes and the impacts they left on Pakistani society have remained a concern of various writers. The disastrous effects of military dictatorship and the ways dictators adopted to strengthen their sway have been portrayed by novelists and political thinkers and activists.

In Pakistan: A Modern History, Talbot’s point of view comes very close to Hanif when he talks about the wreck brought about by the policies and the person of Zia. In Khan’s opinion, Zia stressed more on the “regulative, punitive and extractive” aspect of Islam, rather than its “social aspect” (H. Khan & M. Khan, 2016, p. 271). He also takes into consideration the idea that Islam’s image was badly affected by the way it was portrayed and it resulted in the understanding of Islam as a dogmatic and narrow religion. In a likewise manner, Chadda (2000), in her Building Democracy in South Asia: India, Nepal, Pakistan, describes Zia’s Islamization and his policies in detail. In his work Democracy and Governance in Pakistan Kamran (2008) presents the harsh reality about the disaster done to Pakistan by Zia resulting from his lust for power and the maneuvers he adopted to maintain his hold upon the government. He proclaims “[M]ost significantly, the Revival of Constitution of 1973 Order granted Zia the power to dissolve the National Assembly virtually at will” (pp. 105–108). Kamran also tries to lay bare the fact that Zia distorted the shape of the constitution by bringing amendments whereby the military was included with the elites of politics in decision-making power for the interests of national importance.

Majeed et al. (2021) consider Hanif’s A Case of Exploding Mangoes to be a harsh and bitter criticism of the military regime, the bad governance, and “piousness.” In their paper, Kanwal & Aslam (2018) try to bring out the changing scenarios regarding the role of Pakistan, America, and Afghanistan in the backdrop of a changing world which has been presented by three Pakistani novels: A Case of Exploding Mangoes by Mohammed Hanif, The Reluctant Fundamentalist by Mohsin Hamid, and The Wasted Vigil by Nadeem Aslam. These novels reflect what happened in these parts of the world in the span of the past 30 years. Afzal et al. (2020) find A Case of Exploding Mangoes a novel dealing with multiple facets of power struggle.

Minai (2014) analyzes the film The Reluctant Fundamentalist, by Mira Nair, based on Mohsin Hamid’s novel; Hanif’s A Case of Exploding Mangoes and Jamil Dehlavi’s film, Jinnah to explore the transnational politics of class, gender, and sexuality of these representations. Tanvir (2014) investigates the social and political circumstances of Pakistan during 1980s, when General Muhammad Zia-ul-Haq exercised his power and controlled the government of Pakistan by military take-over till he was assassinated in an air crash near Bahawalpur.

Allen (2020) holds the opinion that Hanif in his novels encompasses a variety of issues which include international politics, religious notions, problems of class, gender concerns, and the issues related to subjugation. Ahmad (2014), in his research work has attempted to keenly observe the way the game of power politics interferes with the lives of the masses. The researcher has come up with the point that the literature has failed to depict the true picture considering the lack of political stability and repeated onslaughts of dictatorships on democracy. In Ahmed’s opinion, the role of media remained limited to criticizing the present political situation, and the writers like Mohsin Hamid, Kamila Shamsie, and Uzma Aslam Khan concentrated on writing about the process of Islamization in Pakistan which began in the Zia regime as these writers grew up in that regime. These writers presented a very bleak picture of Pakistani society showing it as radical, fanatical, and corrupt, being governed by some selfish, ambitious, and crooked politicians, generals, and landlords and these works got high acclamation. In their study, Iqbal et al. (2015) try to find out the part that the comprador class plays in Hanif’s A Case of Exploding Mangoes. Shamsie (2015) in her paper about A Case of Exploding Mangoes believes that the novel relates the way Pakistan was part of the Afghan Mujahideen’s struggle which was supported by America.

A Case of Exploding Mangoes and The Feast of the Goat as Literary Works

In a Latin American conference (1978), the novelists decided to write novels about their country’s dictators, and many Latin American writers published their work dealing with the military regime (Ngongkum, 2018). Thus, the establishment of the Latin American Dictator Novel is not a coincidence, rather the novelists chose to write about the dictators. Whereas in Pakistan there is no such planning of writing about dictators.

In her book, Shamsie (2015) comments that Llosa’s work has a great impact on Hanif’s novel. Hanif’s work relates the final days of Zia’s life and the events which led to his plane crash and the novel of Llosa covers the last span of Trujillo’s life who was a cruel dictator (p. 18). Moreover, In the acknowledgment of his novel A Case of Exploding Mangoes, Hanif said that he was inspired by Llosa’s La fiesta del chivo and Marquez’s Crónica de una muerte anunciada.

While a large bulk of work is available on Latin American dictator novels, taking into consideration its various aspects, there is little or no systematic study on Pakistani dictator novels. More importantly, there is no study available on the comparison between the Latin American dictator novel and its Pakistani counterpart. Therefore, it is important to give a comparative analysis of the works produced in continents that are geographically apart.

Research Questions

1. How far is Pakistani dictator fiction representative of and resistant to dictatorships in Pakistan?

2. How is Pakistani dictator fiction similar to or different from Latin American fiction in terms of theme and structure?

Theoretical Framework and Methodology of the Study

This study analyzes and compares the content of two novels—Mario Vargas Llosa’s The Feast of the Goat (2000) and Mohammad Hanif’s A Case of Exploding Mangoes (2008). It focuses on the textual analyses of two cross-cultural novels under review. It finds out as to what commonalities and contrasts lie in both texts while belonging to diverse cultures and contexts.

The relevant concepts that the study focuses to draw upon are resistance, rewriting/retelling history, and representation. The methodology I use consists of close reading and comparison of the selected texts. The study aims at bringing the two geographically, culturally, and historically diverse texts together (in conversation) and finding convergences and divergences. It focuses on the ways how dictators are presented controlling the means to prolong their rule and how the resistance against them is portrayed. It also focuses on how and to what extent these texts denounce authoritarian rules.

A number of dictator novels have been written on Latin American dictators. Rafael Leonidas Trujillo Molina was one of the most oppressive dictators in Latin American History and various novels have been written dealing with him and his bloody regime. Mario Vargas Llosa’s The Feast of the Goat is comparatively a recent work. Unlike other novels on Trujillo which used allegorical and magic-realist techniques, Llosa’s novel is a meticulously researched historical novel. Thus, I have selected his novel for comparison with a Pakistani novel in which the central figure is a dictator.

A Case of Exploding Mangoes is selected as a novel that combines serious themes dealing with the rule of a dictator, Zia, and his mysterious assassination with comedy and black humor. As the novel deals with the themes and issues related to dictatorship in Pakistan, I have selected it to compare with The Feast of the Goat.

Analysis and Discussion

Dictator fiction, from a Latin American perspective, appears to be a well-established genre but in Pakistan, it is in its nascent stage. It does have marked similarities with and differences from its Latin American counterpart both in theme and structure and on close observation it seems to be carrying a lot of influence of Latin American dictator novels yet retaining its distinct flavor. Llosa and Hanif have reconstructed the whole structure of dictatorship taking the real figures from history. The Feast of the Goat encompasses Trujillo’s 31-year rule, whereas A Case of Exploding Mangoes highlights Zia’s 10 years era.

The differences can be attributed to the fact that while Trujillo ruled the Dominican Republic for 3 decades with a regime that was cruel, efficient, and ruthless, tolerating no effective opposition, no free press, no free speech (Illson, 1975), General Zia, in an attempt to project a soft image keeping in view the pressure of the international forces, ended up in creating a hybrid regime which pretended to believe in freedom of speech and basic human rights. After the military coup, Zia announced that within 90 days, he would hold new elections. After elections, interestingly General Zia himself became the new president of Pakistan and he attempted to maintain a system that was an amalgam of both a democratic model and martial law (Hasanie, 2013).

Another difference can be located in the characters of both dictators. Trujillo, an adventurer who was trained by the United States Marines during their occupation of the country, forced his way to the top and became dictator ruthlessly ruling the country for 30 years. While Zia was promoted to the rank of the Chief of the Army Staff by the prime minister of the time though he was junior to some other generals. The prime minister appointed him as he was of the view that Zia was a weak and incapable officer who would never dare to go against the civil government.

We have followed the postcolonial model for this comparative study in which a comparison is made between content and forms of one Latin American dictator novel and one Pakistani dictator novel to look for convergences and divergences. The relevant concepts that the study focuses on are the dictator novel and the predominant theme of power, the comparative portrayal of both the dictators and torture cells of both the dictators.

A comparative analysis of Llosa’s The Feast of the Goat and Hanif’s A Case of Exploding Mangoes makes this manifest that Hanif follows in the footsteps of Llosa but in certain aspects treads his distinct path. A Case of Exploding Mangoes represents various facets of dictatorship in Pakistan. Hanif’s tone is quite ironic throughout the novel and he appears to be mocking the military sway in Pakistan in doing so it also becomes a harbinger of resistance to dictatorship in Pakistan.

Dictator Novel and the Predominant Theme of Power

One of the dominant themes of the Latin American dictator novels, as put by Vargas (2018), is the enduring power of the Latin American dictators. Where the theme of power is evident throughout The Feast of the Goat and the dictator is presented as a powerful ruler, A Case of Exploding Mangoes portrays a ridiculous image of the dictator.

Trujillo is presented as a ruthless and powerful dictator. In the scene, where the two street comedians, Valeriano and Barajita, are reported making fun of the chief and calling him a cop, he came himself to spy on them and when he listened to the two comedians addressing the crowd: “Applaud the Cop, you assholes” he “felt the heat run through his body” and ordered a vile punishment at the spot for their disrespectful behavior. However, the next day, he told Johnny Abbes (the head of the Military Intelligence Service, the SIM): “Crazy people are just crazy. Let them go.” But Johnny said: “Too late, Excellency. We threw them to the sharks yesterday. Alive, just as you ordered” (Llosa, 2001, p. 28). Trujillo, here, is presented showing no remorse or repentance over what he did: He stood, his shoes on his feet. A statesman does not repent his decisions. He had never repented anything (Llosa, 2001, p. 28). He further thought of throwing the two bishops (who wrote Pastoral Letter against him) to the sharks alive.

On the other hand, when Zia, in an attempt to get first-hand knowledge of what people think about him, went out of the Army House without his bodyguards, he got insulted by a constable. The constable failed to recognize him and when he told him that he was General Zia ul-Haq, the constable laughed and said: Isn’t one General Zia enough for this poor nation (Hanif, 2008, p. 225)? The constable further insulted Zia in various ways. He, for instance, ordered Zia: Cock. Be a cock. A rooster. When Zia tried to introduce himself, the constable said: Don’t pretend that you don’t know how to be a cock. The author further ridicules the dictator in the following description where Zia literally becomes a cock:

General Zia knew how to be a cock, but last time he had done it was more than half a century ago in school, and he thought that there were people out here still dishing out that childish punishment bewildered him. His back was refusing to bend but the constable held his head down till it almost touched his knees; General Zia reluctantly put both his hands through his legs and tried to reach for his ears. His back was a block of concrete refusing to bend, his legs shook under the weight of his body and he felt he was going to collapse and rollover. (Hanif, 2008, p. 225)

The constable also asked him if he tells him a joke about Zia, he would let him go.

This was easy, General Zia thought. He had entertained many journalists by telling jokes about himself. He cleared his throat and started. ‘Why doesn’t the First Lady let General Zia into her bedroom?’‘Oh shut up,’ the constable said. ‘Everyone knows that one. And it’s not even a joke. It’s probably true. Just say General Zia is a one-eyed faggot thrice and I’ll let you go’. (Hanif, 2008, p. 225)

He is depicted as even kicking on Zia’s backside and dragging him behind the bush.

However, when Zia is finally rescued by his security, he is never shown ordering any punishment for the insolent constable. Though the constable is taken by the security officers, Zia orders to relieve him as he reaches the Army House.

‘Let that policeman go,’ he said, very certain that nobody would believe the constable’s bizarre story. ‘He was only doing his duty’. (Hanif, 2008, pp. 226, 227)

Thus, the author presented Zia as a character who is laughable, foolish, and meek. So far as the constable is not a threat to his public image, he does not mind getting insulted in isolation and treats this incident as unworthy of serious consideration.

In contrast, Trujillo is presented in such a manner that even his absence is Fear. He exercises power and holds control over the people of his country. During his rule, in order to prove their loyalty to the ruler, people used to place the following words in their houses: In this house, Trujillo is the Chief (Llosa, 2001, p. 9, 10) and God and Trujillo (Llosa, 2001, p. 267).

Balaguer was not the first to associate divinity with his work. The Benefactor recalled that the law professor. Attorney, and politician Don Jacinto B. Peynado had placed a large luminous sign on the door of his house: ‘God and Trujillo.’ And then identical signs began to be displayed on many homes in the capital city and in the interior. (Llosa, 2001, p. 267)

This is how they try to tackle any possible culpability of rebellion. It is because of the absolute power of the dictator that the people of the country are afraid of the chief and the chief’s men.

One of his Lieutenants, Amadito, describes Trujjilo as a very strict chief regarding discipline as well. When Trujillo examines him, his “gaze” is described as “digging up [Amadito’s] conscience.”

There was a long silence while those eyes examined his uniform, his belt, his buttons, his tie, his visored hat. Amadito began to perspire. He knew that the slightest carelessness in dress provoked such disgust in the Chief that he could erupt into violent recriminations. (Llosa, 2001, p. 38)

On the other hand, Zia’s dictatorial discipline is not depicted as that strict:

General Zia noticed that although all eight of them stood up and saluted, they all sat down without waiting for him to take his chair first. (Hanif, 2008, p. 30)

Thus, where Trujjilo is presented as a powerful dictator, Zia is portrayed as not a very commanding ruler who often appears rather ridiculous.

Comparative Portrayal of Both the Dictators

Llosa constructed Trujillo’s persona as a man who has complete control over himself. There was a common belief that [h]e didn’t sweat if he didn’t want to (Llosa, 2001, p. 20). Even in his heavy uniform in very hot summer, with hat and gloves, people never saw him perspiring. Only when he is alone, he allows his body to perspire.

He is presented as a very organized and calculated man who is always found following his timetable strictly. He gets up at four, and it is for him that the five o’clock news are moved to four, because [t]hey knew he listened to the radio while he shaved, bathed, and dressed, and they were painstakingly careful (Llosa, 2001, p. 21).

His office, breakfast, and everything are in perfect order:

He walked into his office, in the National Palace when his watch said five. Breakfast was on his desk__ fruit juice, buttered toast, fresh-brewed coffee__ with two cups. And, getting to his feet, the flabby silhouette of the director of the Intelligence Service, Colonel Johnny Abbes Garcia: ‘Good morning, Excellency’. (Llosa, 2001, p. 30)

He is also presented as a womanizer who has held in his arms the most beautiful women in this country (Llosa, 2001, p. 62) and the peremptory orders waited at airports for their husbands for the new assignments.

The peremptory orders that waited for him at every airport so he would continue his hysterical journey, pestering governments for inane reasons. Just to keep him from returning to Ciudad Trujillo while the Chief was screwing his wife. (Llosa, 2001, p. 64)

Trujillo is portrayed as a man with a very strong vindictive spirit and it is evident that he has a tenacious memory as regards keeping the record of his enemies alive and it is because of this fact that he gets Jose Almonia killed for bringing a bad name to his family by writing a book against him. The writer also mentions the resourcefulness of Trujillo in the attainment of heinous and secretive ends: the long arms of Trujillo (Llosa, 2001, p. 73).

Llosa while unfolding various layers of Trujillo’s personality also points to the character trait of being suspicious or distrustful and the reason for being so is nothing else than being wary or guarded against anything conflicting to his interests or ideas and it is this attribute of his person which contributed considerably in the long tenure of his rule. The writer makes this aspect of Trujillo’s personality through the word of Senator Chirinos to Egghead: If he weren’t suspicious, he wouldn’t have lasted thirty-one years (Llosa, 2001, p. 243).

Llosa while describing some positive traits of Trujillo’s personality, does it in such a manner that no soft corner for Trujillo is developed in the reader’s mind. When he admires Trujillo for his too much concern and care regarding cleanliness in all aspects of his life, he also mentions the fact that it was like a religion for him rather the only religion he acted upon like a devout worshipper. It is quite evident that the writer, in an indirect manner, criticizes lack of religious spirit and disregard for religion in Trujillo, thereby, lessening or balancing the positives of his person with the negatives: Cleanliness, caring for his body and his clothing, had been, for him, the only religion he practiced faithfully (Llosa, 2001, p. 22).

It is also true of the long detail that he gives regarding the application of perfume followed by the brushing of hair and the use of powder in good quantity. The irony is a potent weapon in the hands of Llosa and he uses it very deftly, while describing the application of powder by Trujillo, he talks about the generous amount and the intent was to expose the weakness or complex regarding the Dark shade of his maternal ancestors:

When his hair was combed and he had touched up the ends of the thin brush mustache he had worn for twenty years, he powdered his face generously until he had hidden under a delicate whitish cloud the dark tinge of the Haitian blacks who were his maternal ancestors, something he had always despised on other people’s skin, and on his own. (Llosa, 2001, pp. 28, 29)

Trujillo’s figure, as depicted by the writer, appears to be that of a strict disciplinarian who does not accept even a slight sluggishness or carelessness concerning everything associated with the discipline of his army. The way he was methodically meticulous about every aspect of his life and keen about the cleanliness, he expected the same from his followers, especially from the army personnel, and was quite unforgiving about any lapse in this respect: Even a spot or a wrinkle on trousers […] carelessly placed visored cap were grave faults (Llosa, 2001, p. 29). Such officers can even be expelled.

Trujillo, as portrayed in the novel, appears to be a hard-hearted person possessing a very strong spirit of revenge and quite unforgiving about any breach of discipline or law but in one respect he appears to be altogether a different person and it is when he pays a visit to his mother, and he is never found short of paying regular visits to his mother: But first, as he did every day, he stopped at his mother’s house on Avenida Maximo Gomez (Llosa, 2001, p. 334) and shows such humbleness and humility of spirit before her that he seems to be a completely transformed figure.

Where Trujillo is presented as a strong dictator, he has certain weaknesses. He is presented as a man with superstitions. One of his superstitions is that his failure to reach his office at five will bring something bad for him. Another superstition is his idea that as long as his ring with precious iridescent stone (Llosa, 2001, p. 38) is in his finger, he will never fall.

A close reading of the novel makes it evident that whenever Llosa tells about some admirable traits of Trujillo’s personality, he tries his best to lessen the effect with the description of something that undermines it, for instance, when he describes the punctuality of Trujillo and his strict adherence to his schedule, he also talks about the superstitious nature of him and gives the impression that the punctuality of reaching the office at the exact hour was due to a superstition: It was one of his superstitions; if he did not walk into his office at five sharp, something bad would happen that day (Llosa, 2001, p. 29).

Llosa also presents another superstition of Trujillo which is related to wearing a ring with the conviction that it will keep him safe and will not let his regime fall: …as long as he kept it on he would be invulnerable to enemies (Llosa, 2001, p. 38). It is important to note that Llosa, by presenting the superstitious nature of Trujillo, also wants to undermine and lower the esteem and position of Trujillo as a leader because a person with a strong belief in superstitions falls short of the true standards of leadership.

Being a dictator and the one possessing full authority and power, Trujillo, as shown by the writer, remains suspicious about everyone around him and, therefore, remains wary and careful in the choice and selection of people to remain close to him. It is what happens when he doubts the conclusions drawn by a native doctor about his health and on bringing a foreign doctor, his doubts regarding the reports of native doctor get confirmed.

Llosa tries to give the impression that some strong impressions from his earlier life had contributed a lot to the makeup of Trujillo’s personality and one such impression is that of Petronius, who is a character of Sienkiewicz’s novel Quo Vadis. Trujillo strongly desired to have all the luxuries that Petronius used to enjoy including the massages, ablutions essences, and his slave girls (Llosa, 2001, p. 28).

Trujillo’s stature and grandeur are undermined in a very intelligent and indirect way by Llosa by referring to his involuntary urination and to changing his dress many times during the day due to this condition: The suit and underwear, hidden in a bag, would not attract anyone’s attention, for the Benefactor was in the habit of changing clothes several times a day in his private office (Llosa, 2001, p. 149).

Llosa, while talking about the agony which Trujillo felt about the conduct and character of his sons, wants to bring the attention of readers to the fact that Trujillo failed badly as a father and remained unsuccessful in the good upbringing of his children and in creating a sense of responsibility in them.

In the pit of his stomach he felt the rush of acid that attacked every time he thought about his sons, those successful failures, those disappointments. Playing polo in Paris and fucking French girls while their father was fighting the battle of his life! (Llosa, 2001, p. 23)

On the other hand, Zia, as portrayed by the writer, appears to be an Army chief having little control over his subordinates, being conscious of the fact that his rule depended on their cooperation and support. Here Hanif wants to convey the idea that the usurper of power remains conscious of the fact what others think of him and even loses his self-respect resulting in a lack of self-confidence and development of inferiority complex.

General Zia noticed that although all eight of them stood up and saluted, they all sat down without waiting for him to take his chair first. (Hanif, 2008, p. 30)

Hanif has painted the image of Zia as a person with strong religious inclinations and the one feeling exalted while observing certain religious duties or rites. It was also the case when he used to distribute cash to needy people.

But this ritual of handing over an envelope containing a couple of hundred rupees to a woman who didn’t have a man to take care of her made him feel exalted. (Hanif, 2008, p. 119)

It is important to note that Hanif presents Zia in such a way that Zia’s personality gets undermined in the view of readers and appears as a foil to another strong character:

He would look at Brigadier TM by his side, using his elbows to keep the crowd at bay and he would immediately know that it wasn’t him they were scared of, they just didn’t want to be noticed by Brigadier TM. (Hanif, 2008, pp. 220–221)

It also dawns upon him that he is not so popular in public and he gets this realization when he goes to watch cricket matches where it dawns upon him: people were more interested in the game and didn’t seem too bothered about loving him or fearing him (Hanif, 2008, pp. 220–221).

General Zia has been made an object of ridicule because of the way he has been depicted as a husband. Hanif has taken full liberty of rhetoric to show him as a buffoon and a weakling before his wife. The overall impression of Zia that gets surfaced is that of a helpless person before his better half and not capable to muster up the courage to say anything against the will of his wife as he deems it difficult to argue with women, [w]ho could argue with women (Hanif, 2008, p. 27)?

Though Zia seems to be a very pious person and a staunch practicing Muslim but Hanif, in a very deft way, exposes his inner longing and lack of control over his suppressed desires. It is a temptation that is so overwhelming for him and can easily put his piety in danger.

Then as Joanne lunged towards him, the self-control that had helped him survive three wars, one coup and two elections vanished. (Hanif, 2008, p. 97)

Hanif not only exposes the inner workings of Zia’s mind thereby showing him as a buffoon but also tries to debunk him physically by showing the difference between his appearance on the television and what he actually was. He shows the deformities of his being by stating that he was shorter and fatter than he appeared on television. Hanif makes fun of the appearance of Zia as he portrays him as an officer with protruding belly and the one who looked odd in the tight dress: It looks like he is wearing a borrowed uniform (Hanif, 2008, p. 266).

The ridicule thrust upon Zia seems to be touching the heights of farce when the doctor informs Zia about the factor responsible for his sickness, You’ve worms, sir (Hanif, 2008, p. 83).

Torture Cells of Both the Dictators

One of the chief concerns of the Latin American Dictator Novel is the description of the barbarous rule of the dictators. While telling the story of the horrifying extremes during Trujillo’s regime, Llosa gives vivid and open pictures of the brutality and torture. The torture cells are depicted with terrifying details that “are not for the weakhearted” (Roorda, 2019).

Llosa’s details and the vividness with which he described the torture cells and what happened there are far more horrifying as compared to Hanif’s. For instance, he describes at length what happened with one of the conspirators of Trujillo’s assassination, Pupo, in the El Nueve torture cell. He was taken to a room full of terrible smell of excrement and urine which nauseated him. He was then stripped on an electric seat with straps and rings for his ankles, wrists, chest, and head, cutting into his muscles. Further, we see the bundle of wires, voltage controller, balls of fire, sharp needles punched into his pores, sessions of electric shocks, pestilential water making him respond, his eyelids taped to his eyebrows keeping him from sleep, stuffing his mouth with inedible stuff which sometimes he detected to be excrement and vomited (Llosa, 2001, p. 388). They then removed the tape ripping off his eyebrows and made an announcement: Now you’ll have some dark, so you’ll sleep real good (Llosa, 2001, p. 389). Then we find them sewing his eyelids. He was not in the torture cell for any real investigation, he was there only to pay for his “betrayal” of Papa. (Emphasis is mine.)

Shut up, Pupo. You have nothing to tell me. I know everything. (Llosa, 2001, p. 389)

He also attempted suicide two times in order to free himself of all that utter pain: first by smashing his head against the wall and second by eating all the glass of a broken electric bulb thinking that it would damage him internally causing his death. But SIM had two doctors and a first aid station to help the torture victims to survive for more torture.

They did not cut off his testicles with a knife but used a scissors, while he was on the Throne. […] They stuffed his testicles into his mouth, and he swallowed them, hoping with all his might that this would hasten his death, something he never dreamed he could desire so much. (Llosa, 2001, p. 389, 390)

Finally, when a SIM doctor told Ramfis Trujillo that Pupo was hardly able to survive for a few more hours, he shot Pupo to death.

I won’t let him die a natural death. Stand behind me, you don’t want any cartridges to hit you. (Llosa, 2001, p. 390)

Llosa presents another case of merciless torture with minute details. This time it is Miguel Angel Baez Diaz, vice president of the Dominican Party who is in a torture cell for electric shocks, burning, and beating, accompanied by two doctors to revive him for continued torture. This case becomes an extreme example of brutality and inhumanness when Baez and Modesto (another prisoner) were given meat to eat instead of a usual plate of corn mash.

When a lot of time had passed, on one occasion, they were served with some quantity of meat as an alternative for their usual food and they ate it heartily and when they had finished the meal, they were told that the food they ate a short time ago was nothing else than the meat of the son of Baez Diaz and in order to make them certain of the fact they were shown the cut head of the son. It was not possible for Diaz to bear the tragedy and he passed away in a short time after witnessing the tragic scene (Llosa, 2001, p. 399). After being tortured the prisoners were thrown into the oceans to be eaten by sharks.

However, the torture cell described by Hanif is different. It is delineated from Ali Shigri’s perspective which is very hard to look like a torture chamber (Hanif, 2008, p. 111). He was first put into a stinking bathroom and was then taken to the torture cell.

He was taken to a compartment that does not appear to be a place to torment someone and in the place, a barber’s chair having straps of rubber on its arms is kept and it is attached with some electrical instruments. There is also a table lying in the hall having various things which can be used to torture put on it and it also has a considerable quantity of chili powder lying on it in a bottle. The room also contains some old tires, ropes, and chains. Some hanging and some attached to the walls. Iron is also present there and it occurred to the writer that the room resembles a great extent to a laundry with a variety of equipment more to serve the purpose of tormenting than vice versa. The place appears to him to be more like an old and discarded theater building but the ceiling tells him the story of something horrendous and the spots of congealed blood present on it speak of the purpose for which the place has been made use of (Hanif, 2008, p. 111).

Though there is a reference to the splashes of dried blood, there is no scene describing the torture. The author seems more interested in describing what is outside the torture cell—the Fort with vast and green gardens. Further, the tone of the person who is going to torture Ali Shigri is polite rather respectful:

‘Sir, please take off your uniform,’ the soldier says respectfully. […] ‘I hope you’ll forgive me, sir. I am only doing my duty’. (Hanif, 2008, p. 111, 112)

Then we find him hanging halfway between the floor and the ceiling (Hanif, 2008, p. 114).

The most “torturous” of all is the scene where Major Kiyani brings iron close to his eyebrows.

He brings the tip of the iron close to my left eyebrow. My eyes squeeze shut in panic. I smell burning hair and jerk my head backwards. (Hanif, 2008, p. 114)

The lentil soup garnished with gravel and fifty-fifty bread that is half flour and half sand (Hanif, 2008, p. 140) seems nothing when compared with gagging the mouth with excretion and serving the meat of the prisoner’s own son as depicted by Llosa. It is also interesting to notice that sometimes Ali Shigri was served with chicken korma.

Thus, the methods of persecution were very different in both novels. The extreme interrogation methods in The Feast of the Goat are not comparable with the lighthearted punishments in the torture cells depicted in A Case of Exploding Mangoes. Where Llousa misses no point in describing Trujillo as a brutal dictator, Hanif gives space to Zia’s human qualities.

Findings

Trujillo’s persona was created by Llosa as a man who has complete control over himself. He is portrayed as an exceptionally planned and calculated man who adheres to his schedule religiously. While detailing certain excellent aspects of Trujillo’s personality, Llosa does them in such a way that the reader does not develop a soft corner for him. In the novel, Trujillo is depicted as a rigorous disciplinarian who will not tolerate even the slightest sluggishness or negligence when it comes to everything related to his army’s discipline. He is portrayed as a powerful ruler, though he has flaws. He is also portrayed as a superstitious man. When Llosa describes Trujillo’s punctuality and strict adherence to his schedule, he also mentions his superstitious nature, giving the impression that his punctuality was due to superstitions. Llosa paints a vivid portrait of brutality and suffering. The torture cells are depicted in horrific detail that is not for the weakhearted.

On the other side, Zia appears to be an Army leader with limited influence over his subordinates. Hanif has portrayed Zia as a person with strong religious inclinations who feels exalted when performing specific religious obligations or rites. Hanif presents Zia in such a way that his personality gets undermined in the eyes of the readers, and he seems like a foil to other powerful characters. It also dawns on the dictator that he is not very well-liked in public, and he realizes this when he goes to watch cricket matches. Hanif has used hyperbole to portray him as a clown and a weakling in front of his wife. The overall impression of Zia that gets surfaced is that of a helpless person before his better half. He is not capable to muster up the courage to say anything against the will of his wife as he deems it difficult to argue with women. The location of the torture cells appears to be more like an old and abandoned theatrical building, but the ceiling tells a horrifying narrative. The spots of congealed blood on it reveal the function for which it has been used. Despite the mention of the splashes of the dried blood, there is no scene depicting the torture.

Hanif depicted this ruler in a ridiculous light. Trujillo, on the other hand, is depicted in such a way that his absence is Fear. He exercises power and maintains control over his country’s citizens. In Llosa’s novel, the people who violated his orders in any way were given so horrible punishments in torture cells or public that no one else can dare to rise against the rule. However, the dictator portrayed by Hanif seems a very different person who is forgiving, accommodating, and careful about what the masses think about him.

Conclusion

Based on the above discussion, it is revealed that there is diversity in the ways Llosa and Hanif handled the dictators. There is no doubt about the fact that in The Feast of the Goat, the theme of power is quite palpable, and the dictator appears as a mighty ruler, but in A Case of Exploding Mangoes, a ridiculous image of the dictator comes to the surface. Llosa portrays Trujillo as a merciless and forceful dictator and the one with the least feelings of compunction over his actions and such is the brunt of his being that even his absence is Fear. He imposes his will over the masses and seems to have absolute control over them. Hanif, on the other hand, gives only an oblique portrayal of certain dark aspects and brutalities of Zia’s dictatorship, and even the events that he brings to the forefront are presented in a light and humorous vein, failing to arouse emotions of hatred and denouncement against dictatorship. Zia is shown getting slighted even by a constable and becoming a cock. He is rather depicted as a meek ruler with no edicts of brutal punishments and the overall impression about his being is unlike that of a dictator.