Abstract
To respond to the numerous socioeconomic challenges facing South Africa, universities must equip students to actively participate in economic development initiatives. Students from Economics and all disciplines in the Social Sciences have a pertinent role to play in this regard. This article presents an initiative to implement service learning as part of the curriculum for Development Economics students at undergraduate and postgraduate levels at a South African public university. Undergraduate and postgraduate students acted as fieldworkers who carried out survey research in the local informal economy in the university town of Potchefstroom in South Africa’s North West Province. The experiences of students and lecturers in these two complimenting projects are compared and contrasted. The enthusiasm for the project was a clear theme emerging form the pilot projects. Future endeavors must employ even more resources to enable even more reflection in the learning experience. The possibility and benefits of converting the complete curriculum of Development Economics into a service learning approach also emerged from the research.
Introduction
In 2014, South Africa celebrated 20 years of democracy. Although celebrations throughout that year focused on the progress that had been made since 1994, many commentators also pointed out that massive strides still needed to be made to establish a society that is not only democratic by name but also truly free and fair (Southall, 2010).
Battling chronically high unemployment and poverty (Mohamed, 2010) and having the dubious honor of being regarded as one of the most unequal societies in the world, there are few who would argue that South Africa has truly achieved the vision of a dignified life for all that was envisioned around the time of the first democratic elections.
Policies aimed at redressing past injustices and putting South Africa on a path toward less poverty and greater equality dominate the political and economic landscape, and policies surrounding education receive particular attention. This is because education is often seen as the panacea that will address the very difficult issues the country is coping with. During 2015 and 2016, nationwide student protests at South African universities calling for access to free higher education again emphasized the fact that South Africans are hungry for education (KPMG, 2016). In a country with persistently high unemployment rates, tertiary education in particular is seen as a way of distinguishing oneself from the mass of jobseekers: The unemployment rate among university graduates in South Africa is 7.3% compared with a rate of 27.5% for people who only have a matric certificate (high school diploma; Stats SA, 2017). Broader themes that emerged from what has come to be known as the #FeesMustFall movement also emphasized the need not merely for free higher education but also for higher education that is responsive to the changing social challenges faced by the South African community. Therefore, education providers are expected not only to provide the necessary education but also to engage with communities at a level that will help to narrow the poverty and inequality gaps in the country. Universities in South Africa, as those elsewhere in the world, have the duty to view community engagement as a core activity (Wood, Seobi, Setlhare-Meltor, & Waddington, 2015; Zuber-Skerritt, 2015).
This requirement was already made particularly clear in the 1997 White Paper 1 on education, which states that one of the goals of higher education is “To promote and develop social responsibility and awareness among students of the role of higher education in social and economic development through community service programmed [sic]” (p.10).
A clear mission is therefore identified—higher education institutions in South Africa must empower students to participate in economic development initiatives. Community service, furthermore, should not be seen as something separate from teaching and research duties, but something that strengthens and mutually supports these duties. Although active engagement is required from students in all fields of study, the severe economic challenges of high and chronic unemployment, income inequality, and insufficient economic growth faced by the country mean that a particular duty lies in ensuring that Economics students throughout South Africa have a thorough understanding of the challenges faced by the country and future policy challenges that will need to be met. This will assist universities in producing Economics graduates with the human capital to participate in the global economy as envisaged by de Lange and Olivier (2008).
Economic development especially, as a field of economics that deals with issues of poverty and inequality, presents a unique opportunity for students to be equipped with practical knowledge and experience regarding development challenges. We argue that Economics students, who had this kind of practical exposure to the real challenges facing South African society, can play a key role in joining hands in a multidisciplinary approach to tackle issues of severe and persistent unemployment and inequality in South Africa.
It is against this background that the authors endeavored to heed to the call of Wood et al. (2015) to conduct applied research that is responsive to societal needs. They undertook two pilot projects in 2014 to incorporate service learning into the Development Economics curricula at both undergraduate and postgraduate levels at one of South Africa’s public universities. Service learning had not previously been incorporated into the curricula. Undergraduate and postgraduate Development Economics students formed part of a team of fieldworkers who carried out survey research among day laborers and car guards in the university town of Potchefstroom in South Africa’s North West Province.
Students who partook at the undergraduate level were third-year students registered for the Economic Development module presented at that level. Among these undergraduate students, participation in the project was entirely voluntary. Students who partook at the postgraduate level were 4th-year students registered for the Economic Development module presented at that level. These postgraduate students are referred to in the rest of this article as honors students. (In South Africa, a bachelor of commerce or BCom degree is presented over 3 years. Students can continue with an honors BCom degree to obtain a 4-year qualification.) For these honors students, the work counted toward a mark-bearing assignment. The honors students interviewed the day laborers whose numbers were bigger and therefore required more fieldworkers. Given that the undergraduate students participated voluntarily, it was more feasible for them to interview the smaller number of car guards. The experiences of students and lecturers in these two projects are compared and contrasted in this article, and suggestions made for ways in which to expand service learning within the Economics curriculum at the Potchefstroom campus of the university as well as other institutions of higher learning offering Development Economics as part of their curriculum.
The remainder of this article is therefore structured as follows. To provide some broader context for the importance of service learning, a brief literature study on service learning is provided in the “Theoretical Base and Literature Review” section. Thereafter, the research methodology used is discussed in the “Research Methodology” section, with findings from focus group discussions and lecturer impressions being discussed in the “Ethical Considerations” section. The “Conclusion” section concludes with suggestions on strengthening the service learning component of the Development Economics curriculum at undergraduate and postgraduate levels at the North-West University and other higher learning institutions.
Theoretical Base and Literature Review
Educators are familiar with the concept of Bloom’s taxonomy, which shows the learning process as one in which a basic factual foundation is set, upon which higher order thinking and skills should be built (Bloom, 1956). Graduates should therefore not only display theoretical knowledge of their chosen science but also a deeper understanding and ability to critically engage with the real-world aspects of these facts (Bransford, Brown, & Cockin, 2000).
However, Ziegert and McGoldrick (2008) argue that learning and evaluation in Economics curricula in particular remain mostly summative, so that students are not presented with adequate opportunities to develop these higher planes of knowledge. Work is mostly presented in a deductive way, where instructors lead students from theory to example without much opportunity for inductive learning, as opposed to presenting students with the opportunity to observe real-world issues and find their own explanations for why these may be so.
Service learning is often seen as a means to bridge this gap between real world and theoretical knowledge (Astin, Vogelgesang, Ikeda, & Yee, 2000; Howard, 1993; Hoyt, 2002; McGoldrick, 1998). This is because it is a pedagogy that incorporates experiential learning as a key component. Students, therefore, are provided with built-in opportunities to critically engage with real-world problems in their disciplines.
How can service learning be defined or described? A number of different definitions exist, depending on the source consulted. The following definition of Jacoby (1996) will be accepted for the purpose of this article: A form of experimental education in which students engage in activities that address human and community needs together with structured opportunities intentionally designed to promote student learning and development. Reflection and reciprocity are key concepts of service learning.
Reciprocity within this context is a difficult concept to define concretely. We argue, however, that it implies two elements. On one hand, the students’ awareness (as a result of the project) of the vulnerability of the informal workers enables them to provide individual social assistance where possible and increase the visibility of the often “invisible” section of the population as described by Blaauw, Louw, and Schenck (2006). Second, the increased awareness can also inspire the involvement of other academic departments and entities to engage in actions that may improve the lives of vulnerable workers in a concrete way. One example is the possibility of establishing a social media platform where the day laborers’ skills can be advertised and connections with possible employers established.
Initiatives such as these and/or the establishment of a worker center in the mold of the American experience (see Theodore, Blaauw, Pretorius, & Schenck, 2017) can form important avenues and elements of future service learning projects.
Whatever the choice of definition, service learning has evolved into a concept of considerable interest and debate in higher education all over the world. Therefore, higher education institutions are reconsidering how this idea will feature in existing curricula. Moreover, McAndrew (2001) raises the question as to whether the notion of service learning links learning with the overall outcome associated with a student’s particular area of study.
To answer this question in the affirmative, one must ensure that the student has a high degree of real interest in the subject at hand. This appears to be the single most important factor associated with a positive service-learning experience (Astin et al., 2000). The reason is that subject-matter interest is a key factor in determining the extent to which the service experience enhances understanding of the “academic” course material. It furthermore influences the extent to which the service is viewed as a learning experience (Astin et al., 2000). If this can be achieved, there is solid backing for the view that service learning should be included in the learner’s major field of study.
The advantages and benefits of service learning mentioned in the literature are numerous. Service-learning activities can be beneficial to the development of the learners and also augment the existing curriculum (McAndrew, 2001). Another positive externality that flows from this is that it will assist in developing a moral civic society. By encouraging and requiring learners to partake in a service-learning experience, the academic institution develops the learner’s moral values. This creates a graduate who is more likely to contribute to society as a whole (McAndrew, 2001; Steinberg, Hatcher, & Bringle, 2011; Sullivan & Rosin, 2008).
A further perceived benefit of service learning is that the whole experience is learning oriented instead of merely teaching oriented. Real learning is achieved not only in the classroom but also by a learner taking part in the service-learning experience (Jacoby, 1996). This does not imply that the teaching factor should not be involved. Service learning should indeed be a combination of the two (McAndrew, 2001).
On a practical level, service learning also permits learners to benefit from real-life problem-based learning (Lisman, 1998). Students are confronted with real-life experiences. Therefore, creating artificial scenarios is not needed. Instead, learners can acquire knowledge from actual experiences (McAndrew, 2001). Such service-learning approaches not only assist students in developing a more practical understanding of the issues at hand but also clearly benefit community partners (Mathews, 2001). McAndrew (2001) further states that “This is also beneficial when used in a classroom because students can share their experience with others and reflect on that experience.”
The literature indicates that the above theoretical advantages do in fact also occur in the practical application. Hoyt (2002), for example, argues that the incorporation of a service-learning component into her Research Methods class led to “an enormous improvement” as students were assigned various statistical analyses to conduct for nonprofit organizations in need of the data.
Other qualitative findings postulate that service learning is effective because it facilitates four types of outcomes (Astin et al., 2000). These are “an increased sense of personal efficacy, an increased awareness of the world, an increased awareness of one’s personal values, and increased engagement in the classroom experience” (Astin et al., 2000).
Astin et al. (2000) furthermore found that both faculty and students in their study developed an intensified sense of civic responsibility and personal effectiveness through participation in service-learning modules. Notwithstanding the benefits, the implementation of a service-learning experience is, however, not without its challenges, and this is acknowledged in the literature. A challenge that is often experienced is the conviction that the community should not be used as a laboratory (Lisman, 1998). It is important that the surrounding communities are not being exploited and made to feel like they are a “project” for the students (McAndrew, 2001).
A further challenge is whether ethics can effectively be taught in the classroom environment. Furthermore, the question is whether doing so is the responsibility of the academic institution in question. Lisman (1998), however, suggests that “It is in fact our duty to educate our students, and if that means we must educate them about ethics, then we must do so.”
Ensuring that the service-learning experience is adequately related to the learner’s curriculum is another obstacle (McAndrew, 2001).
One of the biggest tasks that an academic institution is faced with is deciding on a measuring device that offers faculty, administrators, and students the chance to evaluate progress (McAndrew, 2001). The developmental/learning curve is not the same for every individual learner. As a result, it is a difficult task to determine whether a learner really learned from the experience (McAndrew, 2001).
One of the accepted methods to ensure that a learner actually learned from the service-learning program is for learners to have sufficient time for reflection. The main idea underlying service learning is that learning and development do not occur simultaneously. It, in fact, happens through the reflection of the experience that the learner had (McAndrew, 2001). Research indicates that learners learn most effectively through combinations of thought and action, reflection and practice, and theory and application (Jacoby, 1996). Learners must have the opportunity to take part in a facilitator-guided reflection process (Lisman, 1998; McAndrew, 2001). McAndrew (2001) suggests a number of ways to achieve this. These include,
Journals, where learners express their thoughts and feelings;
Research papers, through which learners identify a specific experience or set of actions and reflect upon and analyze it;
Ethical case studies, where learners write up case studies of an ethical dilemma that they were confronted with;
Presentations, where the learner consolidates his or her experiences and develops original presentations; and
Electronic reflection, where learners use methods such as class home pages, chat rooms, online survey forms, and emails to communicate and discuss issues (McAndrew, 2001).
Developing effective reflection activities can be a daunting task. However, it needs to be done for service learning to achieve its objective(s). The research reported on in this article used research papers, presentations, and electronic reflection combined with focus group discussions to achieve the level of reflection needed. This process is described along with the rest of the methodology in the next section.
Research Methodology
The essence of the methodology was qualitative in nature. Qualitative research is, in broad terms, a method in which the data to be used are in the form of words (Neuman, 1997, p. 7). Exploratory research is defined as research conducted to study a topic that is relatively unknown. The aim is to allow researchers to acquaint themselves with the basic facts relating to field of study, to formulate a clear understanding thereof, and to determine the necessity of undertaking further research on the topic (Neuman, 1997, p. 20). The research approach adopted in this exploratory study was that of active participation by the students involved in the research projects.
The students’ active participation commenced as early as the planning phase of the research. Class discussions were devoted to students voicing their views as to what type of questions should form part of the survey instruments to obtain data on the socioeconomic profile of the informal employment activities identified in the study. A key hypothesis emerging from the discussion was the possible presence of various types of underemployment present in the informal employment activities to study. Questions investigating educational and income underemployment therefore formed key elements of the study. This enabled the students to obtain valuable socioeconomic data from the informally employed in Potchefstroom.
The two main research instruments were in the form of written feedback and a focus group discussion. Most institutions require the learner to meet with a group of fellow learners and the lecturer(s) in a classroom setting to discuss their experiences. This is a crucial and critical part of service learning (McAndrew, 2001).
The honors and third-year students were invited to share their experiences of the fieldwork on e-Fundi 2 with the lecturers. This process took place during the actual fieldwork for the two projects. The honors students conducted interviews with the day laborers in Potchefstroom, and the third-year students conducted a similar study among car guards in Potchefstroom. Note that more information on Potchefstroom is presented in Box 1.
Potchefstroom.
The two projects were complementary to each other. Both car guards and day laborers are examples of subsistence activities in South Africa’s informal economy (P. F. Blaauw & Bothma, 2003; D. Blaauw et al., 2006). Studying the socioeconomic conditions of car guards and day laborers provided the authors with a unique opportunity to introduce service learning into the curricula of the Development Economics modules at both undergraduate and postgraduate level. It brought the students up to the coal face of an informal economy, where harsh social and economic circumstances are the order of the day. The challenge of economic development at grassroots level was not merely a theoretical classroom discussion anymore. They were confronted, for the first time, with the real-life struggles and challenges faced by marginalized groups in the informal economy. The people attempting to make a living from being day laborers and car guards share a number of characteristics. They are mostly young, male and with low levels of academic and/or vocational human capital. Their chances of entering or reentering the formal labor market are quite slim as a result (P. F. Blaauw & Bothma, 2003; D. Blaauw et al., 2006). The fieldwork for the two complimenting projects was done in the second semester of 2014.
After the fieldwork was completed, a formal focus group discussion was held in November 2014. This was attended on a voluntary basis by the third-year and honors students. Three of the eight volunteering third-year students attended the focus group discussion. This represented a 38% participation in the formal discussion, even though it was entirely voluntary. This illustrates the unique enthusiasm for the project among the volunteers. The timing of the discussion and the schedule of the honors students’ examinations meant that a smaller percentage (11%) of the honors students were able to join the formal discussion. The majority, however, provided their feedback via email, via the debriefing sessions, or on the Internet site allocated for the module.
The discussion focused on the students’ ex ante perceptions of the projects as well as their ex post thoughts on the learning process. These were collected by the authors and collated with the written responses on e-Fundi. This part of the methodology was supplemented by regular debriefing sessions with the students after the completion of the fieldwork for the day.
As with all research approaches, the analysis and interpretation of information from focus group discussions require significant levels of judgment. Sskepticism about the value of focus groups in many instances stems from the notion that focus group data are subjective and difficult to interpret. This was not the case as the process of analysis can be as demanding as any other method (Onwuegbuzie, Dickinson, Leech, & Zoran, 2009). There is no single correct approach to the analysis of focus group data. The research question and aim of analysis will determine the nature of the analyses of focus group interview data (Onwuegbuzie et al., 2009).
The complete set of responses and information from the focus group discussion were analyzed through classical content analysis (Onwuegbuzie et al., 2009). Creswell and Plano-Clark (2011) method of thematic analysis was used for information from the written reports. The results obtained here were used as the basis for the rest of this study.
Ethical Considerations
The researchers and fieldworkers upheld all appropriate ethical considerations to ensure that the participants’ ethical rights were protected. The identities of the participants among the day laborers and car guards were protected, and their names have not been disclosed. No false promises were made to the participants and the students about how they would benefit from the findings of the study. The participation of the car guards and day laborers was voluntary. They were at all times free to leave the process at any stage.
The next section of the article highlights the findings from the research. The findings were thematically analyzed with the method of Creswell (2006) and Creswell and Plano-Clark (2011) as the guiding principle.
Experience of Postgraduate (Honors BCom) Students
In the following sections, we present findings from the focus group discussions held with both groups of students who partook in the service-learning initiative: postgraduate and undergraduate students. We summarize the main themes that emerged from discussions with both groups and also reflect, as individual lecturers, on our experience to suggest ways in which service-learning components can be better incorporated into both the undergraduate and postgraduate curricula.
Opportunity welcomed
Without exception, all the postgraduate students welcomed the opportunity to be involved in a practical research project, particularly, the opportunity to be involved through all the stages of the research project. They were involved in the design of the research instrument as well as the recognizance phase of the project.
Several of the students remarked that “It was an honour and privilege and I enjoyed it so much and also have learned a lot.” Another student said, “I really enjoyed it to work with you on this project.”
Theory presented in class on the segmentation of the labor market and human capital expenditure was now in evidence in the lives of real people. Students were able to see for themselves the ways in which these theories applied to the issue of the informal economy. In particular, it emerged from the interviews with day laborers that human capital investment plays a seemingly important part in the well-being and socioeconomic circumstances of the day laborers. The findings of the quantitative survey done by student fieldworkers confirm previous studies’ findings in terms of the low levels of real income and the accompanying income uncertainty faced by day laborers and car guards (Blaauw & Bothma, 2003; Blaauw et al., 2006).
Lasting impression
The project has brought the reality of South Africa’s development challenges into the heart of the students. The appreciation for the daily struggles of vulnerable groups made a lasting impression on the students and will remain with them for a long time. One student suggested, “Up to now, these people were kind of invisible. This has now totally changed for me.”
Experience of Undergraduate (Third-Year BCom) Students
The same broad themes emerged from the feedback given by undergraduate students as that received from the postgraduate students. As a reminder, participation by undergraduate students was voluntary, whereas participation for honors students formed part of a mark-bearing assignment. The undergraduate students reported variously that
they found it very interesting to see economic theories come to life during the survey work, with one student stating that “It was an experience I would not trade, especially with regards to getting to practically see and implement theory”;
they enjoyed working more closely together with and getting to know their lecturers;
they also seem to have gained more empathy for the daily struggles of the subsistence economy, as one reported that they had seen “a different side of the world through the car guard’s eyes”;
they had gained some insight into qualitative research; and
they would gladly take part in similar projects again.
Overall, the undergraduate students felt that they had gained valuable experience. One student reported feeling more “street wise” and that participation in the project had been a step outside of a comfort zone.
It was also interesting to note the attitude of undergraduate students toward whether projects such as these should be mandatory or not. One student clearly stated that future projects should be kept voluntary, whereas another student commented that future projects must ensure that quality fieldworkers take part.
One gets the impression then that the undergraduate students enjoyed volunteering for this project as they felt it narrowed participation down to a group of equally enthusiastic, like-minded individuals. There were indications though that those students would gladly participate in a similar project for grades if the opportunity were presented again during postgraduate studies.
Experience of Undergraduate Lecturer
The undergraduate lecturer, likewise, found the experience very uplifting. In an environment where class sizes grow every year and it becomes increasingly difficult to connect with students, this project allowed the lecturer for closer contact with a small group of volunteers.
Particularly encouraging to see was the enthusiasm that students displayed—the volunteers showed up for surveys diligently and even volunteered some Saturday mornings. It was evident that the subject content was coming to life for them, and it was further heartening to see students grow in confidence as they interviewed respondents.
Clearly, not only subject knowledge but also various interpersonal, communication, and research skills were being developed in the short duration of the project. It has been particularly satisfying to have students who participated as undergraduate students visiting the lecturer’s office as postgraduate students to enquire about upcoming service learning projects.
Experience of Postgraduate Lecturer
The lecturer was pleasantly surprised at the positive attitude the students displayed toward the project. This was, in his mind, not merely a function of the fact that the research project would be graded for marks. The students showed a genuine desire and willingness to connect the classroom theory with what is going on in the real world.
The students, in fact, wanted to follow up and expressed the view that the information gathered must be put to good use and presented to various stakeholders such as the local municipality. One student said, “Something more must come from this and awareness must be created.”
The information will be collated by the lecturer and may serve as the basis for a future community service project as well as engaging with the municipality and other relevant stakeholders in the public and private sector.
The fact that the postgraduate students had to complete all phases of a mixed-method project such as this has long-lasting benefits for them. This service-learning exercise translated not only into adding to the skills set of the students in terms of interacting with members of the community, but it also brought with it tangible report writing and other research skills. This will stand the students in good stead for their future working life.
Experiences That Were Shared as Experiences by Both Compulsory (Honors) and Voluntary (Undergraduate) Participants
Several themes emerged as common experiences by both the volunteer groups and the group for which it was a compulsory exercise.
Everybody was enthusiastic
Everybody was interested in the fieldwork and wanted to know what the challenges are that are faced by the two groupings in the informal economy of Potchefstroom. One student suggested, “I was always wondering what is going on in the lives of these people.”
The practical questions raised by all the fieldworkers provide further evidence of the interest of the two groups. Questions such as “Where do they sleep in the winter in Potchefstroom’s harsh climate?” were at the order of the day.
Genuine empathy
Another aspect raised by both groupings was the heartfelt empathy for all of the informal sector participants in Potchefstroom. One undergraduate student said, “I always tipped the car guards but now I am even giving bigger tips.”
Suggestions to Improve Service-Learning Experience From Participants
Students suggested that they would have liked to spend more time on the project and that it should be spread over a full semester. This is a very important suggestion in our view. There is definite scope to expand the service learning component in the Development Economics curriculum for both the undergraduate and postgraduate levels. Students will participate with significant levels of enthusiasm in such an endeavor. This must be investigated and implemented by the School of Economics.
Students maintained that even if such as service-learning experience was not part of a formal curriculum, they will still be willing to participate in it on a voluntary basis. The interesting nature of the topic motivates this. Some postgraduate students indicated that they would be happy to be part of a country-wide study of day laborers. The scale of such an endeavor requires a great deal of money, resources, and planning. However, with such enthusiasm, who knows what can be achieved through a well-thought-through application of the service learning principles in the future?
Some refinements that can be implemented in future include the stipulation of clear learning outcomes for service learning engagements and encouraging students to reflect even more actively on the work they are doing. Both these refinements are aimed at encouraging deeper learning (Ziegert & McGoldrick, 2008). When students are aware of learning outcomes prior to entering their service-learning experiences and then provided with opportunities to actively reflect on lessons learned, they are continually in the process of translating content into lived experience.
Although informal debriefing sessions were held with student fieldworkers after each round of surveys and the focus group discussion can also be seen as a reflective exercise, reflection in future may be deepened by encouraging students to keep journals of their experiences or structuring class discussions specifically around service learning experiences.
Ultimately, one would want to see the Economic Development curriculum move toward an entirely service-learning-centered approach. The University of Vermont’s (UvM) postgraduate program on Community Development is an example upon which it is possible to build. In that curriculum, students must complete entire projects based on the development issues faced by real-world small island states. At the end of the projects, students are expected to present relevant policy recommendations.
Given the small and manageable size of Potchefstroom and the abundance of community projects in surrounding areas, the UvM model is a particularly exciting and realistic goal to strive toward.
Conclusion
This article adds to the literature on service learning in the higher education environment by suggesting concrete ways in which Economics educators in particular could involve students in learning about the economic development challenges facing the country.
Economics, given its predominantly theoretical bent, is often overlooked when thinking about ways in which to incorporate service learning in the curricula. Our experience shows that it is possible, however, and moreover, that it is a teaching method that is appreciated by students and helps to provide greater clarity and concreteness to economic concepts that often can feel rather abstract, such as human capital investment.
To conclude, we highlight implications for academics and policy makers:
Academics, in the field of economics, specifically, should look at ways in which service learning can be incorporated to help students learn in a more deductive manner. Our approach shows that engaging students as fieldworkers in research projects aimed at disseminating greater information about the informal economy helps to concretize and make more relevant the pressing issues faced by the labor market in South Africa.
Policymakers in South African higher education have been challenged by the #FeesMustFall movement not only to provide access to free tertiary education but also to reconsider the ways in which universities operate and teach. Greater support for service learning initiatives can be an important way of incorporating these important concerns into policy making.
Footnotes
Declaration of Conflicting Interests
The author(s) declared no potential conflicts of interest with respect to the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article.
Funding
The author(s) received no financial support for the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article.