This study examines whether adolescent depressive symptoms predict material hardship in adulthood and explores the developmental pathways linking the two. Using data from the National Longitudinal Study of Adolescent to Adult Health (Add Health), we analyze a sibling sample (N = 2,107). Sibling fixed effects models are used to account for unobserved familial and environmental confounding. Adolescent depressive symptoms are significantly associated with adult material hardship, even after adjusting for adult depressive symptoms. Mediation analyses indicate that both human capital, particularly educational attainment, and socio-emotional capital, including neuroticism, conscientiousness, and locus of control, partially explain this association. Socio-emotional traits account for a larger share of the indirect effect, highlighting their importance in shaping economic outcomes. By focusing on material hardship as an experience-based measure of economic insecurity, this study underscores the need for early interventions supporting academic achievement and socio-emotional development to reduce lasting disadvantage related to adolescent mental health.
AndersonL. R.2018. “Adolescent Mental Health and Behavioural Problems, and Intergenerational Social Mobility: A Decomposition of Health Selection Effects.”Social Science & Medicine197:153–60. doi:10.1016/j.socscimed.2017.11.026.
2.
BarrP. B.2018. “Early Neighborhood Conditions and Trajectories of Depressive Symptoms across Adolescence and into Adulthood.”Advances in Life Course Research35:57–68. doi:10.1016/j.alcr.2018.01.005.
3.
BeaujeanA. A.ParkerS.QiuX.2013. “The Relationship between Cognitive Ability and Depression: A Longitudinal Data Analysis.”Social Psychiatry and Psychiatric Epidemiology48:1983–92. doi:10.1007/s00127-013-0668-0.
BreenR.KarlsonK. B.HolmA.2018. “Interpreting and Understanding Logits, Probits, and Other Nonlinear Probability Models.”Annual Review of Sociology44:39–54. doi:10.1146/annurev-soc-073117-041429.
6.
BucciolA.TrucchiS.2021. “Locus of Control and Saving: The Role of Saving Motives.”Journal of Economic Psychology86:102413. doi:10.1016/j.joep.2021.102413.
7.
CampbellC.PearlmanJ.2019. “Access to Social Network Support and Material Hardship.”Social Currents6:284–304.
8.
CottinghamM. D.2016. “Theorizing Emotional Capital.”Theory and Society45:451–70. doi:10.1007/s11186-016-9278-7.
9.
CrandallA.AllsopY.HansonC. L.2018. “The Longitudinal Association between Cognitive Control Capacities, Suicidality, and Depression during Late Adolescence and Young Adulthood.”Journal of Adolescence65:167–76. doi:10.1016/j.adolescence.2018.03.009.
10.
CrosnoeR.2021. “Contextualizing the Social and Educational Journeys of Adolescents within the Life Course.”Journal of Research on Adolescence31:1135–51. doi:10.1111/jora.12689.
11.
CrosnoeR.MistryR. S.ElderG. H.2002. “Economic Disadvantage, Family Dynamics, and Adolescent Enrollment in Higher Education.”Journal of Marriage and Family64:690–702. doi:10.1111/j.1741-3737.2002.00690.x.
12.
EisenbergN.SpinradT. L.EggumN. D.2010. “Emotion-related Self-regulation and Its Relation to Children's Maladjustment.”Annual Review of Clinical Psychology6:495–525. doi:10.1146/annurev.clinpsy.121208.131208.
13.
FinanL. J.OhannessianC. M.GordonM. S.2018. “Trajectories of Depressive Symptoms from Adolescence to Emerging Adulthood: The Influence of Parents, Peers, and Siblings.”Developmental Psychology54:1555–67. doi:10.1037/dev0000543.
14.
FletcherJ. M.2010. “Adolescent Depression and Educational Attainment: Results Using Sibling Fixed Effects.”Health Economics19:855–71. doi:10.1002/hec.1526.
FukuyaY.FujiwaraT.IsumiA.DoiS.OchiM.2021. “Association of Birth Order with Mental Health Problems, Self-esteem, Resilience, and Happiness among Children: Results from A-CHILD Study.”Frontiers in Psychiatry12:638088. doi:10.3389/fpsyt.2021.638088.
17.
GarvikM.IdsoeT.BruE.2014. “Depression and School Engagement among Norwegian Upper Secondary Vocational School Students.”Scandinavian Journal of Educational Research58:592–608. doi:10.1080/00313831.2013.798835.
18.
GreeneW.2004. “The Behaviour of the Maximum Likelihood Estimator of Limited Dependent Variable Models in the Presence of Fixed Effects.”Econometrics Journal7:98–119. doi:10.1111/j.1368-423X.2004.00123.x.
19.
HaleD. R.BevilacquaL.VinerR. M.2015. “Adolescent Health and Adult Education and Employment: A Systematic Review.”Pediatrics136:128–40. doi:10.1542/peds.2014-2105.
20.
HanW. -J.HartJ.2022. “Precarious Parental Employment, Economic Hardship, and Parenting and Child Happiness Amidst a Pandemic.”Children and Youth Services Review133:106343. doi:10.1016/j.childyouth.2021.106343.
21.
HarrisK. M.HalpernC. T.WhitselE. A.HusseyJ. M.Killeya-JonesL. A.TaborJ.DeanS. C.2019. “Cohort Profile: The National Longitudinal Study of Adolescent to Adult Health (Add Health).”International Journal of Epidemiology48:1415. doi:10.1093/ije/dyz115.
22.
HartS. L.VellaL.MohrD. C.2008. “Relationships among Depressive Symptoms, Benefit-finding, Optimism, and Positive Affect in Multiple Sclerosis Patients after Psychotherapy for Depression.”Health Psychology27:230–38. doi:10.1037/0278-6133.27.2.230.
23.
HatchS. L.WadsworthM. E. J.2008. “Does Adolescent Affect Impact Adult Social Integration? Evidence from the British 1946 Birth Cohort.”Sociology42:155–77. doi:10.1177/0038038507087358.
24.
HeckmanJ. J.KautzT.2012. “Hard Evidence on Soft Skills.”Labour Economics19:451–64. doi:10.1016/j.labeco.2012.05.014.
25.
HeckmanJ. J.KruegerA. B.2005. Inequality in America: What Role for Human Capital Policies?Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.
26.
HeflinC. H.ButlerJ. S.2013. “Why Do Women Enter and Exit from Material Hardship?”Journal of Family Issues34:631–60.
27.
HiriscauA.PinteaM.2024. “Birth Order, Socioeconomic Background and Educational Attainment.”Education Economics32:395–412. doi:10.1080/09645292.2023.2217482.
28.
HitlinS.Kirkpatrick JohnsonM.2015. “Reconceptualizing Agency within the Life Course: The Power of Looking Ahead.”American Journal of Sociology120:1429–72. doi:10.1086/681216.
29.
HofmarcherT.2021. “The Effect of Education on Poverty: A European Perspective.”Economics of Education Review83:102124. doi:10.1016/j.econedurev.2021.102124.
30.
JangH.ChoiH. L.KimJ.2025. “Unmet Healthcare Needs, Gender, and Depressive Symptoms: Evidence from Asymmetric Fixed Effects Models.”Public Health249:105991. doi:10.1016/j.puhe.2025.105991.
31.
JangH.SonH.KimJ.2023. “Classmates’ Discrimination Experiences and Adolescent Depressive Symptoms: Evidence from Random Assignment of Students to Classrooms in South Korea.”Journal of Adolescent Health72:914–22. doi:10.1016/j.jadohealth.2022.12.027.
32.
KimJ.2022. “Personality, Health Behaviours and Physical Health in Young Adulthood.”Psychology & Health37:1164–83. doi:10.1080/08870446.2021.1934468.
33.
KimJ.ParkG. -R.JangH.2024. “Adolescent Depressive Symptoms and Memory Performance in Young Adulthood: Testing Critical Period, Accumulation, and Pathway Models Using a Sibling Comparison Design.”Social Science & Medicine360:117328. doi:10.1016/j.socscimed.2024.117328.
34.
KimJ.SongK.SutinA. R.2021. “Gender Differences in the Relationship between Perceived Discrimination and Personality Traits in Young Adulthood: Evidence Using Sibling Fixed Effects.”Social Science & Medicine286:114329. doi:10.1016/j.socscimed.2021.114329.
35.
KimJ.SonH.2023. “Adolescent Delinquent Behavior and Sleep Deficiency: A Test of Multiple Mechanisms Using Sibling Comparison Designs.”European Child & Adolescent Psychiatry32:167–76. doi:10.1007/s00787-022-02054-y.
36.
KimT.JangH.KimJ.2022. “Peers’ Private Tutoring and Adolescent Depressive Symptoms: Quasi-experimental Evidence from Secondary Schools in South Korea.”Journal of Adolescent Health70:658–65. doi:10.1016/j.jadohealth.2021.10.040.
37.
Kirkpatrick JohnsonM.StaffJ.SchulenbergJ. E.PatrickM. E.2016. “Living Healthier and Longer: A Life Course Perspective on Education and Health.” Pp. 369–88 in Handbook of the Life Course: Volume II, edited by ShanahanM.MortimerJ.Kirkpatrick JohnsonM.Cham: Springer.
38.
KlinckM.VannucciA.OhannessianC. M. C.2020. “Bidirectional Relationships between School Connectedness and Internalizing Symptoms during Early Adolescence.”Journal of Early Adolescence40:1336–68. doi:10.1177/0272431619858401.
39.
LaheyB. B.2009. “Public Health Significance of Neuroticism.”American Psychologist64:241.
40.
LauriolaM.WellerJ.2018. “Personality and Risk: Beyond Daredevils— Risk Taking from a Temperament Perspective.” Pp. 3–36Psychological Perspectives on Risk and Risk Analysis: Theory, Models, and Applications, edited by RaueM.LermerE.StreicherB.Cham: Springer. doi:10.1007/978-3-319-92478-6_1.
41.
LopooL. M.DeLeireT.2014. “Family Structure and the Economic Wellbeing of Children in Youth and Adulthood.”Social Science Research43:30–44.
42.
MarksG. N.2022. “Cognitive Ability Has Powerful, Widespread and Robust Effects on Social Stratification: Evidence from the 1979 and 1997 US National Longitudinal Surveys of Youth.”Intelligence94:101686. doi:10.1016/j.intell.2022.101686.
43.
McLeodJ. D.KaiserK.2004. “Childhood Emotional and Behavioral Problems and Educational Attainment.”American Sociological Review69:636–58. doi:10.1177/000312240406900502.
44.
McLeodJ. D.UemuraR.RohrmanS.2012. “Adolescent Mental Health, Behavior Problems, and Academic Achievement.”Journal of Health and Social Behavior53:482–97. doi:10.1177/0022146512462888.
45.
MeierA. M.2007. “Adolescent First Sex and Subsequent Mental Health.”American Journal of Sociology112:1811–47. doi:10.1086/512708.
46.
MeredithW. J.SilversJ. A.2024. “Experience-dependent Neurodevelopment of Self-regulation in Adolescence.”Developmental Cognitive Neuroscience66:101356.
47.
MondiC. F.GiovanelliA.ReynoldsA. J.2021. “Fostering Socio-emotional Learning through Early Childhood Intervention.”International Journal of Child Care and Education Policy15:1–43.
48.
NgaJ. K. hKen YienL.2013. “The Influence of Personality Trait and Demographics on Financial Decision Making among Generation Y.”Young Consumers14:230–43. doi:10.1108/YC-11-2012-00325.
49.
NortonE. C.2012. “Log Odds and Ends.” NBER Working Paper Series. National Bureau of Economic Research, Cambridge, MA.
50.
OrthU.RobinsR. W.WidamanK. F.2012. “Life-span Development of Self-esteem and Its Effects on Important Life Outcomes.”Journal of Personality and Social Psychology102:1271.
51.
ParkH.KimT.KimJ.2023. “Longitudinal Pathways from Adolescent Depressive Symptoms to Cardiovascular Disease Risk in Adulthood.”Social Science & Medicine318:115657. doi:10.1016/j.socscimed.2023.115657.
52.
PitesaM.ThauS.PillutlaM. M.2017. “Workplace Trust as a Mechanism of Employee (Dis)advantage: The Case of Employee Socioeconomic Status.”Research in Organizational Behavior37:83–101. doi:10.1016/j.riob.2017.10.006.
53.
PreacherK. J.HayesA. F.2004. “SPSS and SAS Procedures for Estimating Indirect Effects in Simple Mediation Models.”Behavior Research Methods, Instruments, & Computers36:717–31. doi:10.3758/BF03206553.
54.
PuriM.RobinsonD. T.2007. “Optimism and Economic Choice.”Journal of Financial Economics86:71–99. doi:10.1016/j.jfineco.2006.09.003.
55.
RaoU.ChenL.-A.2009. “Characteristics, Correlates, and Outcomes of Childhood and Adolescent Depressive Disorders.”Dialogues in Clinical Neuroscience11:45–62. doi:10.31887/DCNS.2009.11.1/urao.
56.
ReichC. M.BermanJ. S.2015. “Do Financial Literacy Classes Help? An Experimental Assessment in a Low-income Population.”Journal of Social Service Research41:193–203.
57.
SalkR. H.HydeJ. S.AbramsonL. Y.2017. “Gender Differences in Depression in Representative National Samples: Meta-analyses of Diagnoses and Symptoms.”Psychological Bulletin143:783–822. doi:10.1037/bul0000102.
58.
SantosA. C.SimõesC.MeloM. H. S.SantosM. F.FreitasI.BranquinhoC.CefaiC.ArriagaP.2023. “A Systematic Review of the Association between Social and Emotional Competencies and Student Engagement in Youth.”Educational Research Review39:100535. doi:10.1016/j.edurev.2023.100535.
59.
Schenck-FontaineA.PanicoL.2019. “Many Kinds of Poverty: Three Dimensions of Economic Hardship, Their Combinations, and Children's Behavior Problems.”Demography56:2279–2305. doi:10.1007/s13524-019-00833-y.
60.
SheeberL. B.DavisB.LeveC.HopsH.TildesleyE.2007. “Adolescents’ Relationships with Their Mothers and Fathers: Associations with Depressive Disorder and Subdiagnostic Symptomatology.”Journal of Abnormal Psychology116:144.
61.
ShinerR.CaspiA.2003. “Personality Differences in Childhood and Adolescence: Measurement, Development, and Consequences.”Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry44:2–32.
62.
SiegelL. J.GriffinN. J.1984. “Correlates of Depressive Symptoms in Adolescents.”Journal of Youth and Adolescence13:475–87.
63.
SilversJ. A.2022. “Adolescence as a Pivotal Period for Emotion Regulation Development.”Current Opinion in Psychology44:258–63. doi:10.1016/j.copsyc.2021.09.023.
64.
SonJ.SungP.2024. “The Relationship among Generalized Trust, Social Networks, and Social Resources across 30 Countries.”International Sociology39:375–98.
65.
SullivanJ. X.TurnerL.DanzigerS.2008. “The Relationship between Income and Material Hardship.”Journal of Policy Analysis and Management27:63–81. doi:10.1002/pam.20307.
66.
TangN.BakerA.2016. “Self-esteem, Financial Knowledge and Financial Behavior.”Journal of Economic Psychology54:164–76.
67.
ThomasM. M. C.2022. “Longitudinal Patterns of Material Hardship among US Families.”Social Indicators Research163:341–70. doi:10.1007/s11205-022-02896-8.
68.
TulinM.LanceeB.VolkerB.2018. “Personality and Social Capital.”Social Psychology Quarterly81:295–318. doi:10.1177/0190272518804533.
69.
TurgumbayevM.RimaD.DossanovM.BaisalovA.BeaverK. M.2024. “Adolescent Delinquency and Adulthood Economic Disadvantage and Job Benefits: Results from a Longitudinal Sample of Males and Females.”International Journal of Offender Therapy and Comparative Criminology68:1124–44. doi:10.1177/0306624X221110802.
70.
VartanianT. P.1999. “Adolescent Neighborhood Effects on Labor Market and Economic Outcomes.”Social Service Review73:142–67. doi:10.1086/514412.
71.
WhelanC. T.2001. “Income, Deprivation, and Economic Strain. An Analysis of the European Community Household Panel.”European Sociological Review17:357–72. doi:10.1093/esr/17.4.357.
72.
WhiteI. R.RoystonP.WoodA. M.2011. “Multiple Imputation Using Chained Equations: Issues and Guidance for Practice.”Statistics in Medicine30:377–99. doi:10.1002/sim.4067.
73.
WickramaK. A. S.CongerR. D.AbrahamW. Todd. 2008. “Early Family Adversity, Youth Depressive Symptom Trajectories, and Young Adult Socioeconomic Attainment: A Latent Trajectory Class Analysis.”Advances in Life Course Research13:161–92. doi:10.1016/S1040-2608(08)00007-5.
74.
XiaL.YaoS.2015. “The Involvement of Genes in Adolescent Depression: A Systematic Review.”Frontiers in Behavioral Neuroscience9:329.
75.
XiangX.WongD. F. K.HouK.2018. “The Impact of Perceived Discrimination on Personality among Chinese Migrant Children: The Moderating Role of Parental Support.”International Journal of Social Psychiatry64:248–57.
76.
ZhangD.ShenJ.BiR.ZhangY.ZhouF.FengC.GuR.2022. “Differentiating the Abnormalities of Social and Monetary Reward Processing Associated with Depressive Symptoms.”Psychological Medicine52:2080–94.
