The purpose of this content analysis was to examine the use of theory in school-counselor-led interventions. Specifically, we examined intervention characteristics, evaluation design, and use of theory in school-counselor-led intervention studies that were published by the American Counseling Association, the American School Counselor Association (ASCA), and in other school-counseling-related journals from 2003 to 2022. Drawing from 45 published articles, results indicated that few school counseling articles explicitly included ASCA Mindsets & Behaviors (ASCA, 2021) or integrated formal counseling theory to inform student outcomes.
AbelN. R.OliverB. M.KellerT. J.McAulayA.PiatekL. (2015). Using Student Success Skills to address ASCA behavior standards in grades K-3. Professional School Counseling, 19(1), 1096–2409. https://doi.org/10.5330/1096-2409-19.1.116
2.
AlbarqouniL.HoffmannT.GlasziouP. (2018). Evidence-based practice educational intervention studies: A systematic review of what is taught and how it is measured. BMC Medical Education, 18(1), 1–8. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12909-018-1284-1
3.
*AllenA. H.JonesG. D.BakerS. B.MartinezR. R. (2019). Effect of a curriculum unit to enhance career and college readiness self-efficacy of fourth-grade students. Professional School Counseling, 23(1), 2156759X1988681. https://doi.org/10.1177/2156759X19886815
AstramovichR. L. (2016). Program evaluation interest and skills of school counselors. Professional School Counseling, 20(1), 1096–2409. https://doi.org/10.5330/1096-2409-20.1.54
8.
*AugustyniakK. M.BrooksM.RinaldoV. J.BognerR.HodgesS. (2009). Emotional regulation: Considerations for school-based group interventions. Journal for Specialists in Group Work, 34(4), 326–350. https://doi.org/10.1080/01933920903219060
9.
*BakerJ.Parks-SavageA.RehfussM. (2009). Teaching social skills in a virtual environment: An exploratory study. Journal for Specialists in Group Work, 34(3), 209–226. https://doi.org/10.1080/01933920903039195
10.
*BardhoshiG.DuncanK.ErfordB. T. (2017). Effect of a specialized classroom counseling intervention on increasing self-efficacy among first-grade rural students. Professional School Counseling, 21(1), 1096–2409. https://doi.org/10.5330/1096-2409-21.1.12
11.
Barrio MintonC. A.GibbonsM. M.HightowerJ. M. (2021). Community‐engaged research and evaluation in counseling: Building partnerships and applying program evaluation. Journal of Counseling and Development, 99(2), 210–220. https://doi.org/10.1002/jcad.12368
12.
BledsoeK. G.Logan-McKibbenS.McKibbenW. B.CookR. M. (2019). A content analysis of school counseling supervision. Professional School Counseling, 22(1), 2156759X1983845. https://doi.org/10.1177/2156759X19838454
13.
BowersH.LembergerM. E. (2016). A person-centered humanistic approach to performing evidence-based school counseling research. Person-Centered & Experiential Psychotherapies, 15(1), 55–66. https://doi.org/10.1080/14779757.2016.1139502
14.
*BowersH.LembergerM. E.JonesM. H.RogersJ. E. (2015). The influence of repeated exposure to the Student Success Skills program on middle school students’ feelings of connectedness, behavioral and metacognitive skills, and reading achievement. Journal for Specialists in Group Work, 40(4), 344–364. https://doi.org/10.1080/01933922.2015.1090511
15.
*BrigmanG.CampbellC. (2003). Helping students improve academic achievement and school success behavior. Professional School Counseling, 7(2), 91–98.
16.
*BrigmanG. A.WebbL. D.CampbellC. (2007). Building skills for school success: Improving the academic and social competence of students. Professional School Counseling, 10(3), 279–288. https://doi.org/10.1177/2156759X0701000310
17.
*BroganJ.BloomdahlS. C.RowlettW. H.DunhamM. (2020). Using SFBC group techniques to increase Latino academic self-esteem. Journal of School Counseling, 18(11), 1–37. https://jsc.montana.edu/articles/v18n11.pdf
18.
*CampbellC. A.BrigmanG. (2005). Closing the achievement gap: A structured approach to group counseling. Journal for Specialists in Group Work, 30(1), 67–82. https://doi.org/10.1080/01933920590908705
19.
CareyJ. C.DimmittC.HatchT. A.LapanR. T.WhistonS. C. (2008). Report of the national panel for evidence-based school counseling: Outcome research coding protocol and evaluation of Student Success Skills and Second Step. Professional School Counseling, 11(3), 2156759X0801100. https://doi.org/10.1177/2156759X0801100306
20.
*CerritoJ. A.TrustyJ.BehunR. J. (2018). Comparing web‐based and traditional career interventions with elementary students: An experimental study. The Career Development Quarterly, 66(4), 286–299. https://doi.org/10.1002/cdq.12151
21.
ChaeN. (2021). Fostering potential: How school counselors can supplement the ASCA Mindsets & Behaviors. Journal of Creativity in Mental Health, 16(4), 428–443. https://doi.org/10.1080/15401383.2020.1790454
22.
ClarkM.MoeJ.ChanC. D.BestM. D.MallowL. M. (2022). Social justice outcomes and professional counseling: An 11-year content analysis. Journal of Counseling and Development, 100(3), 284–295. https://doi.org/10.1002/jcad.12427
23.
ColquhounH. L.BrehautJ. C.SalesA.IversN.GrimshawJ.MichieS.CarrollK.ChalifouxM.EvaK. W. (2013). A systematic review of the use of theory in randomized controlled trials of audit and feedback. Implementation Science: IS, 8(1), 1–8. https://doi.org/10.1186/1748-5908-8-66
24.
DimmittC. (2009). Why evaluation matters: Determining effective school counseling practices. Professional School Counseling, 12(6), 2156759X0901200. https://doi.org/10.1177/2156759X0901200605
25.
DimmittC. (2018). Name inequities and create meaningful change: Evidence-based school counseling and social justice[Paper presentation]. National Evidence-Based School Counseling Conference, New York, NY.
26.
DimmittC.ZyromskiB. (2020). Evidence-based school counseling: Expanding the existing paradigm. Professional School Counseling, 23(1_part_3), 2156759X2090450. https://doi.org/10.1177/2156759X20904501
27.
DollarhideC. T.Lemberger-TrueloveM. E. (Eds.), (2019). Theories of school counseling for the 21st century. Oxford University Press.
28.
*DoumasD. M.MidgettA.HausheerR. (2021). A pilot study testing the efficacy of a brief, bystander bullying intervention: Reducing bullying victimization among high school students. Professional School Counseling, 25(1), 2156759X2110186. https://doi.org/10.1177/2156759X211018651
29.
*FalcoL. D.CretharH.BaumanS. (2008). Skill-builders: Improving middle school students’ self-beliefs for learning mathematics. Professional School Counseling, 11(4), 2156759X0801100. https://doi.org/10.1177/2156759X0801100403
*FroeschleJ. G.SmithR. L.RicardR. (2007). The efficacy of a systematic substance abuse program for adolescent females. Professional School Counseling, 10(5), 2156759X0701000. https://doi.org/10.1177/2156759X0701000507
32.
GlanzK.BishopD. B. (2010). The role of behavioral science theory in development and implementation of public health interventions. Annual Review of Public Health, 31(1), 399–418. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev.publhealth.012809.103604
33.
GriffithC.MarianiM.McMahonH. G.ZyromskiB.GreenspanS. B. (2019). School counseling intervention research: A 10-year content analysis of ASCA- and ACA-affiliated journals. Professional School Counseling, 23(1), 2156759X1987870. https://doi.org/10.1177/2156759X19878700
34.
*GutierrezD.FoxxS. P.KondiliE. (2018). Investigating the effectiveness of a motivational interviewing group on academic motivation. Journal of School Counseling, 16(14). https://jsc.montana.edu/articles/v16n14.pdf
35.
KimH.CarneyJ. V.HazlerR. J. (2023). Promoting school connectedness: A critical review of definitions and theoretical models for school-based interventions. Preventing School Failure: Alternative Education for Children and Youth, 67(4), 256–264. https://doi.org/10.1080/1045988X.2022.2119359
36.
KrippendorffK. H. (2019). Content analysis: An introduction to its methodology. Sage.
37.
LembergerM. E. (2010). Advocating Student-within-Environment: A humanistic theory for school counseling. Journal of Humanistic Counseling Education and Development, 49(2), 131–146. https://doi.org/10.1002/j.2161-1939.2010.tb00093.x
38.
*LembergerM. E.CarbonneauK. J.SeligJ. P.BowersH. (2018). The role of social–emotional mediators on middle school students’ academic growth as fostered by an evidence-based intervention. Journal of Counseling and Development, 96(1), 27–40. https://doi.org/10.1002/jcad.12175
39.
*LembergerM. E.ClemensE. V. (2012). Connectedness and self-regulation as constructs of the student success skills program in inner-city African American elementary school students. Journal of Counseling and Development, 90(4), 450–458. https://doi.org/10.1002/j.1556-6676.2012.00056.x
40.
LembergerM. E.HutchisonB. (2014). Advocating Student-within-Environment: A humanistic approach for therapists to animate social justice in the schools. Journal of Humanistic Psychology, 54(1), 28–44. https://doi.org/10.1177/0022167812469831
41.
*LembergerM. E.SeligJ. P.BowersH.RogersJ. E. (2015). Effects of the Student Success Skills program on executive functioning skills, feelings of connectedness, and academic achievement in a predominantly Hispanic, low-income middle school district. Journal of Counseling and Development, 93(1), 25–37. https://doi.org/10.1002/j.1556-6676.2015.00178.x
42.
Lemberger-TrueloveM. E.Bowers ParkerH. (2024). An evidence-based systems approach to school counseling: Advocating Student-within-Environment. Taylor & Francis.
43.
Lemberger-TrueloveM. E.CeballosP. L.MolinaC. E.DehnerJ. M. (2020). Inclusion of theory for evidence-based school counseling practice and scholarship. Professional School Counseling, 23(1_part_3), 2156759X2090357. https://doi.org/10.1177/2156759X20903576
44.
*Lemberger-TrueloveM. E.CeballosP. L.MolinaC. E.CarbonneauK. J. (2021). Growth in middle school students’ curiosity, executive functioning, and academic achievement: Results from a theory-informed SEL and MBI school counseling intervention. Professional School Counseling, 24(1_part_3), 2156759X2110076. https://doi.org/10.1177/2156759X211007654
45.
LenzA. S. (2018). Reconsidering the value assigned to counseling research paradigms and outcomes. Counseling Outcome Research and Evaluation, 9(1), 1–4. https://doi.org/10.1080/21501378.2017.1423202
46.
*LeónA.VillaresE.BrigmanG.WebbL.PelusoP. (2011). Closing the achievement gap of Latina/Latino students: A school counseling response. Counseling Outcome Research and Evaluation, 2(1), 73–86. https://doi.org/10.1177/2150137811400731
47.
LevyI.Lemberger-TrueloveM. E. (2021). Educator-counselor: A nondual identity for professional school counselors. Professional School Counseling, 24(1_part_3), 2156759X2110076. https://doi.org/10.1177/2156759X211007630
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LopezC. J.MasonE. C. (2017). School counselors as curricular leaders: A content analysis of ASCA lesson plans. Professional School Counseling, 21(1b), 2156759X1877327. https://doi.org/10.1177/2156759X18773277
49.
*MartinI.ChoiJ.ZyromskiB.CamposL.MansheimS.CunninghamP. D.CallahanW. (2022). Small-group investigation of the true goals curriculum with elementary and middle school students: A randomized control study. Professional School Counseling, 26(1), 2156759X2211342. https://doi.org/10.1177/2156759X221134259
50.
MartinI.RallisS. (2014). Building on strengths and addressing challenges: Enhancing external school counseling program evaluation. Journal of School Counseling, 12(10). https://jsc.montana.edu/articles/v12n10.pdf
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*MartinezR. R.BakerS. B.YoungT. (2017). Promoting career and college readiness, aspirations, and self-efficacy: Curriculum field test. The Career Development Quarterly, 65(2), 173–188. https://doi.org/10.1002/cdq.12090
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MasonE. C. M.TrezekB. J. (2021). Using the CSCORE protocol to identify evidence-based practices in school counseling intervention research. Counseling Outcome Research and Evaluation, 12(2), 91–104. https://doi.org/10.1080/21501378.2020.1796480
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55.
*McLaughlinL.LauxJ. M.Pescara-KovachL. (2006). Using multimedia to reduce bullying and victimization in third-grade urban schools. Professional School Counseling, 10(2), 2156759X0601000. https://doi.org/10.1177/2156759X0601000210
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MidgettA.DoumasD.SearsD.LundquistA.HausheerR. (2015). A bystander bullying psychoeducation program with middle school students: A preliminary report. The Professional Counselor, 5(4), 486–500. https://doi.org/10.15241/am.5.4.486
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*MidgettA.DoumasD.TrullR. (2016). Evaluation of a brief, school-based bullying bystander intervention for elementary school students. Professional School Counseling, 20(1), 172–183. https://doi.org/10.5330/1096-2409-20.1.172
60.
*MidgettA.DoumasD.TrullR.JohnstonA. D. (2017a). A randomized controlled study evaluating a brief, bystander bullying intervention with junior high school students. Journal of School Counseling, 15(9). https://jsc.montana.edu/articles/v15n9.pdf
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*MidgettA.DoumasD. M. (2019). The impact of a brief bullying bystander intervention on depressive symptoms. Journal of Counseling and Development, 97(3), 270–280. https://doi.org/10.1002/jcad.12267
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*MidgettA.DoumasD. M.TrullR.JohnsonJ. (2017b). Training students who occasionally bully to be peer advocates: Is a bystander intervention effective in reducing bullying behavior?Journal of Child and Adolescent Counseling, 3(1), 1–13. https://doi.org/10.1080/23727810.2016.1277116
*MolinaC. E.Lemberger-TrueloveM. E.ZieherA. K. (2022). School counselor consultation effects on teachers’ mindfulness, stress, and relationships. Professional School Counseling, 26(1a), 2156759X2210867. https://doi.org/10.1177/2156759X221086749
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*Newman-CarlsonD.HorneA. M. (2004). Bully busters: A psychoeducational intervention for reducing bullying behavior in middle school students. Journal of Counseling and Development, 82(3), 259–267. https://doi.org/10.1002/j.1556-6678.2004.tb00309.x
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*PoyntonT. A.CarlsonM. W.HopperJ. A.CareyJ. C. (2006). Evaluation of an innovative approach to improving middle school students' academic achievement. Professional School Counseling, 9(3), 190–196. https://doi.org/10.1177/2156759x0500900309
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*RayD. C. (2007). Two counseling interventions to reduce teacher-child relationship stress. Professional School Counseling, 10(4), 428–440. https://doi.org/10.1177/2156759X0701000416
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*RendaM. R.VillaresE. (2015). The effect of a student achievement curriculum on grade 9 completion rate and student engagement. Counseling Outcome Research and Evaluation, 6(2), 113–125. https://doi.org/10.1177/2150137815598812
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