The present study explored the causal relationship between self-esteem and school belongingness among a sample of urban youth. Based on a longitudinal cross-lagged panel design, the results offered initial support for the personal agency perspective of growth in self-esteem leading to growth in school belongingness. We discuss the implications for school counselors and the study’s limitations and directions for future research.
BanduraA. (1989). Human agency in social cognitive theory. American Psychologist, 44, 1175–1184.
4.
BaskinT. W.WampoldB. E.QuintanaS. M.EnrightR. D. (2010). Belongingness as a protective factor against loneliness and potential depression in a multicultural middle school. The Counseling Psychologist, 38, 626–651. doi:10.1177/0011000009358459
5.
BaumeisterR. F.CampbellJ. D.KruegerJ. I.VohsK. D. (2003). Does high self-esteem cause better performance, interpersonal success, happiness, or healthier lifestyles?Psychological Science in the Public Interest, 4, 1–44.
6.
BlascovichJ.TomakaJ. (1991). Measures of self-esteem. In RobinsonJ. P.ShaverP. R.WrightsmanL. S. (Eds.), Measures of personality and social psychological attitudes (Vol. 1, pp. 115–160). London, England: Academic Press.
7.
BroughamL.Kashubeck-WestS. (2018). Impact of a growth mindset intervention on academic performance of students at two urban high schools. Professional School Counseling, 21, 1–9. doi:10.1177/2156759X18764934
8.
CiocanelO.PowerK.EriksenA.GillingsA. (2017). Effectiveness of positive youth development interventions: A meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials. Journal of Youth and Adolescence, 46, 483–504. doi:10.1007/s10964-016-0555-6
9.
CoelhoV. A.MarchanteM.JimersonS. R. (2017). Promoting a positive middle school transition: A randomized-controlled treatment study examining self-concept and self-esteem. Journal of Youth and Adolescence, 46, 558–569. doi:10.1007/s10964-016-0510-6
10.
CravenR.MarshH. W. (2008). The centrality of the self-concept construct for psychological wellbeing and unlocking human potential: Implications for child and educational psychologists. Educational & Child Psychology, 25, 104–118.
11.
DottererA. M.McHaleS. M.CrouterA. C. (2007). Implications of out-of-school activities for school engagement in African American adolescents. Journal of Youth and Adolescence, 36, 391–401.
12.
EcclesJ. S.MidgleyC. (1989). Stage-environment fit: Developmentally appropriate classrooms for young adolescents. In AmesC.AmesR. (Eds.), Research on motivation in education: Goals and cognitions (Vol. 3, pp. 139–186). San Diego, CA: Academic Press.
13.
FarahmandF. K.DuffyS. N.TailorM. A.DuBoisD. L.LyonA. L.GrantK. E.…NathansonA. M. (2012). Community-based mental health and behavioral programs for low-income urban youth: A meta-analytic review. Clinical Psychology: Science and Practice, 19, 195–215. doi:10.1111/j.1468-2850.2012.01283.x
14.
FarahmandF. K.GrantK. E.PoloA. J.DuffyS. N.DuBoisD. L. (2011). School-based mental health and behavioral programs for low-income, urban youth: A systematic and meta-analytic review. Clinical Psychology: Science and Practice, 18, 373–390. doi:10.1111/j.1468-2850.2011.01265.x
15.
GalliherR. V.RostoskyS. S.HughesH. K. (2004). School belonging, self-esteem, and depressive symptoms in adolescents: An examination of sex, sexual attraction status, and urbanicity. Journal of Youth & Adolescence, 33, 235–245.
16.
Gaylord-HardenN. K.ManceG.GipsonP.GrantK. E. (2008). Coping patterns of African American adolescents: A confirmatory factor analysis and cluster analysis of the Children’s Coping Strategies Checklist. Psychological Assessment, 20, 10–22.
17.
GilmanR.AndermanE. M. (2006). The relationship between relative levels of motivation and intrapersonal, interpersonal, and academic functioning among older adolescents. Journal of School Psychology, 44, 375–391.
18.
GoodenowC. (1993). The psychological sense of school membership among adolescents: Scale development and educational correlates. Psychology in the Schools, 30, 79–90.
19.
GoodenowC.GradyK. E. (1993). The relationship of school belonging and friends’ values to academic motivation among urban adolescent students. Journal of Experimental Education, 62, 60–71.
20.
HagborgW. J. (1993). The Rosenberg self-esteem scale and Harter’s self-perception profile for adolescents: A concurrent validity study. Psychology in the Schools, 30, 132–136.
21.
HarterS. (1999). The construction of the self: A developmental perspective. New York, NY: Guilford.
22.
Jindal-SnapeD.MillerD. J. (2008). A challenge of living? Understanding the psycho-social processes of the child during primary-secondary transition through resilience and self-esteem theories. Educational Psychology Review, 20, 217–236.
23.
JohnsonL. S. (2009). School contexts and student belonging: A mixed methods study of an innovative high school. The School Community Journal, 19, 99–118.
24.
MaX. (2003). Sense of belonging to school: Can schools make a difference?Journal of Educational Research, 96, 340–349.
25.
ManlyC. A.WellsR. S. (2015). Reporting the use of multiple imputation for missing data in higher education research. Research in Higher Education, 56, 397–409. doi:10.1007/s11162-014-9344-9
26.
MastenA. S. (2014). Invited commentary: Resilience and positive youth development frameworks in developmental science. Journal of Youth and Adolescence, 43, 1018–1024. doi:10.1007/s10964-014-0118-7
27.
NiwaE. Y.WayN.HughesD. L. (2014). Trajectories of ethnic-racial discrimination among ethnically diverse early adolescents: Associations with psychological and social adjustment. Child Development, 85, 2339–2354. doi:10.1111/cdev.12310
28.
OstermanK. E. (2000). Students’ need for belonging in the school community. Review of Educational Research, 70, 323–368.
29.
OzerE. J.DouglasL. (2013). The impact of participatory research on urban teens: An experimental evaluation. American Journal of Community Psychology, 51, 66–75. doi:10.1007/s10464-012-9546-2
30.
PengL.ChenX.LeiP.ZhouR. (2012). School belonging and adjustment in migrant children: Mediating role of collective self-esteem. Chinese Journal of Clinical Psychology, 20, 237–239.
31.
PerryJ. C.WallaceE. W.BartoL. M. (2013). Adolescents and adults in the urban context: Mentorship relationships. In JarvisP.CreaseyG. (Eds.), Adolescent development and school achievement in urban communities: Resilience in the neighborhood (pp. 163–176). New York, NY: Routledge.
32.
RosenbergM. (1965). Society and the adolescent self-image. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press.
33.
SchaferJ. L.GrahamJ. W. (2002). Missing data: Our view of the state of the art. Psychological Methods, 7, 147–177.
34.
SeligJ. P.LittleT. D. (2012). Autoregressive and cross-lagged panel analysis for longitudinal data. In LaursenB.LittleT. D. (Eds.), Handbook of developmental research methods (pp. 265–278). New York, NY: Guilford.
35.
ShochetI. M.SmithC. L.FurlongM. J.HomelR. (2011). A prospective study investigating the impact of school belonging factors on negative affect in adolescents. Journal of Clinical Child & Adolescent Psychology, 40, 586–595. doi:10.1080/15374416.2011.581616
36.
TaylorR. D.OberleE.DurlakJ. A.WeissbergR. P. (2017). Promoting positive youth development through school-based social and emotional learning interventions: A meta-analysis of follow-up effects. Child Development, 88, 1156–1171. doi:10.1111/cdev.12864
37.
UwahC. J.McMahonH. G.FurlowC. F. (2008). School belonging, educational aspirations, and academic self-efficacy among African American male high school students: Implications for school counselors. Professional School Counseling, 11, 296–305. doi:10.1177/2156759X0801100503
38.
Van RyzinM. J.GravelyA. A.RosethC. J. (2009). Autonomy, belongingness, and engagement in school as contributors to adolescent psychological well-being. Journal of Youth and Adolescence, 38, 1–12.
39.
VaqueraE. (2009). Friendship, educational engagement, and school belonging: Comparing Hispanic and white adolescents. Hispanic Journal of Behavioral Science, 31, 492–514.
40.
VeraE.CarrA. L.RocheM. K.DaskalovaP. (2018). Contextual predictors of vocational hope in ethnic minority, low-income youth. Professional School Counseling, 21, 1–11. doi:10.1177/1096240918761291
41.
WigfieldA.EcclesJ.MacIverD.ReumanD.MidgleyC. (1991). Transitions during early adolescence: Changes in children’s domain-specific perceptions and general self-esteem across the transition to junior high school. Developmental Psychology, 27, 552–565.
