Abstract
Motivation plays a crucial role in learning, particularly when mastering a musical instrument. However, it remains a relatively unexplored area in Hungarian research. In this study, the researchers aim to investigate the relationship between social relations and various aspects of motivation in learning musical instruments, including the motivation to start learning, continue playing, and practice musical instruments regularly. The sample included 264 Hungarian musical instrument students, categorized into three age groups: (1) early adolescents: 9–13-year-olds; (2) mid-adolescents: 14–16-year-olds; (3) late adolescents: 17–19-year-olds. In the course of the cross-sectional data collection, the students filled out the motivation for learning music (MLM) questionnaire, while they were also asked to answer questions about social relationships and demographic data. The MLM questionnaire is based on the five dimensions of self-determination theory: amotivation, external regulation, introjection, identification, and intrinsic motivation. The measurement tool demonstrated reliability across all five dimensions. According to the results, there are significant differences between the age groups in the motivation dimensions, while no gender differences were observed. Based on the regression analysis, social relationships have an impact on learning motivation; however, the role and strength of incentives change with age. For early adolescents, parents exert the greatest influence, whereas teachers and friends play a more significant role for mid-adolescents, and friends become the most decisive influence for late adolescents. The results can be useful for professionals and parents as they can contribute to maintaining motivation.
Keywords
Introduction
Learning music is a complex process, the background of which is a complex system of motives. Learning a musical instrument should be based on the student’s musical interests, as these play a crucial role in motivation (Cantero & Jauset-Berrocal, 2017). Motivation is crucial in music learning, as it influences the choice of musical instrument and the sustained effort required for skill development. A study by Hallam et al. (2020) mentioned that motivation plays a vital role in instrumental music practice, with intrinsic motives such as self-belief being particularly influential. Motivation is also recognized as an essential factor in effective learning, with implications for teaching methods and the development of students in music education (Muñoz, 2019). A study of musicians (MacIntyre et al., 2018) highlighted the significant role of intrinsic motives in maintaining the motivational system for music learning performance. Therefore, it can be seen that motivation plays a crucial role in students’ musical instrument learning process.
Motivation for musical activity is influenced by various factors including cognitive factors (e.g., expectancy value, self-efficacy, goal orientation) and sociocultural factors such as family, school, and teachers (Jihyun, 2016). In addition, musical motivation also recognizes complex interactions between the environment and internal factors in enhancing or reducing motivation. Environmental factors include the roles of family, teachers, and peers, while internal incentives can be psychological needs and individual characteristics (Evans et al., 2013). Hallam and colleagues (2016) also highlighted the importance of social support and affirmation, enjoyment of performing, and the value of playing an instrument in sustaining motivation. Another study (Blanco-Novoa et al., 2021) also averred the impact of social and family environments on academic motivation in professional training students, indicating that extrinsic motivation is high among students whose family is related to music, and those belonging to a musical group score high in intrinsic achievement motivation.
Learning music is a complex process driven by various motives. Motivation influences not only the choice to begin learning a musical instrument but also the sustained effort required for skill development and regular practice. In this study, researchers aim to investigate the comprehensive role of motivation, including its role in initiation, continuation, and practice of learning musical instruments. While international research primarily seeks to learn about students’ complex motivation to learn musical instruments (e.g., Bíró et al. 2020; Blanco-Novoa et al., 2021; Hallam et al., 2020; Muñoz, 2019), Hungarian research that focuses on this area remains relatively scarce.
This study sheds light on the significance of motivation in musical instrumental learning, emphasizing the influential role of social factors. The framework for interpreting the results is provided by self-determination theory, which examines a wide range of behaviors (Ryan et al., 2018). When presenting the results, the characteristics of age and gender differences are also taken into account.
Literature Review
Self-Determination Theory and Music
Self-determination theory (SDT), associated with the names of Ryan and Deci (2017), serves as the basis for several research areas. SDT proposes that all human beings have three basic psychological needs: (1) controlling one's own acts (autonomy), (2) competence, and (3) the sense of belonging (relatedness), which are essential for effective functioning and wellness in music learning (van der Kaap-Deeder, 2023). The combined presence of the three needs contributes to the fact that the action becomes self-determined. Filling these three psychological needs can encourage and support students’ engagement in musical instruments and personal growth in the general music classroom (Sanguinetti, 2024). Based on international research (Bogunović et al., 2023; Niemiec & Ryan, 2009; Schatt, 2018; Valenzuela et al., 2018), SDT provides a suitable framework for learning about the motivation of students of musical instruments.
Motivation in music learning can be influenced by various cognitive and sociocultural factors, affecting the initial decision to learn an instrument, the persistence to continue to play, and the dedication to practice regularly. SDT provides a suitable framework for understanding these different aspects of motivation. In SDT, motivated behavior can be characterized along a continuum, reflecting the degree of self-determination. This continuum ranges from complete amotivation through various forms of extrinsic motivation to intrinsic motivation (Ryan & Deci, 2017). Table 1 illustrates the different motivation dimensions. The order is important because an individual's self-determination increases when progressing from the top to the bottom. The table has been supplemented with examples of behavior important from the point of view of music.
Amotivation is simply defined in the literature as the absence of motivation or intention to act (Cantero & Jauset-Berrocal, 2017; Korsakova et al., 2020). Amotivation, that is, a complete lack of interest, is at one end of the continuum reflecting the degree of self-determination. A musical example of this could be “I don’t see the point of practicing; it feels meaningless.” Amotivation can hinder students’ engagement and progress in music education (Korsakova et al., 2020).
This is followed by full-scale external regulation, where the action is performed to achieve a reward or to avoid punishment. Full-scale external regulation in musical practices involves the regulation of learning practices by external factors such as teachers and the learning environment (Pachón-Basallo et al., 2022). For example, “I have to practice because my parents will punish me if I don’t.” It plays a crucial role in guiding students in collaborative settings and aiding music educators in guiding students during group music performance (Hurme et al., 2019).
In the case of introjection, the individual already accepts and internalizes the incentives, but does not yet identify with them. This is similar to external regulation, but the pressure comes from within; the motivation is to avoid shame and anxiety and to increase pride and self-esteem (Georgiou & Papademetriou, 2022). For example, “I feel ashamed if I don’t practice, so I push myself to do it.” Here, the individual is motivated by internal pressures such as guilt or the need to boost their ego, rather than by a genuine personal endorsement of the activity. The quality of introjections can impact the way individuals relate to music, affecting their emotional engagement and perception of musical instruments (Jennings, 2019).
Identified regulation, also known as identification, is a concept in learning musical instruments that involves individuals personally valuing and integrating a behavior or skill into their sense of self (McPherson et al., 2017). Identified regulation (identification) is a more autonomous and internalized form of extrinsic motivation. In this case, the person recognizes the importance and value of the activity and willingly engages in it, even if this is for external reasons. For example, a child might practice because they have realized that practice is a significant component of mastering an instrument, saying, “Practicing is important because it helps me become a better musician.” Unlike introjected regulation, identified regulation involves a conscious acceptance and valuing of the activity, aligning it more closely with the person's own goals and values, though it may still be driven by external factors (López-Calatayud & Tejada, 2024).
Integrated regulation refers to a type of motivation where individuals engage in activities because they personally value them and perceive them as meaningful and important (Dias Veloso & de Araújo, 2019). Integrated regulation is the most autonomous form of external motivation. The activity is in line with the individual's values and sense of self, but it is still carried out to achieve a desired goal. This form of motivation is similar to intrinsic motivation. To illustrate this with an example from music learning, “I practice because music is a core part of who I am, and it gives me a sense of accomplishment.” In integrated regulation, the external goal is consistent with the internal drive (López-Calatayud & Tejada, 2024).
At the other end of the continuum is intrinsic motivation. Intrinsic motivation refers to the spontaneous tendency to seek out challenges and develop skills without external rewards (di Domenico & Ryan, 2017). In self-determined behavior, no external incentives play a role in performing the activity. An example is, “When I play my instrument, I get lost in the music and feel a deep sense of joy” (Evans, 2015; Renwick & Reeve, 2012). In learning musical instruments, intrinsic motivation plays a crucial role in predicting enjoyment, persistence, and belief in practicing (Upitis et al., 2017).
In the research on the relationship between music and self-determination theory (Evans, 2015; MacIntyre et al., 2018), a greater presence of the three psychological necessities – autonomy, competence, and social relationships – was observed in students who intensively participated in the process of learning music. In contrast, students who decided to stop learning an instrument showed a low level of these necessities (Evans et al., 2013). The lack of these motivational factors can lead to dropout, which can also be disappointing for the parent (Comeau et al., 2019). In the beginning, the student’s motivation is strongly influenced by the parents and the novelty of the activity. After the initial excitement and enthusiasm have passed, many children lose interest, as learning an instrument requires a lot of time and effort (McPherson, 2000). Some students have stronger autonomous motivation, but due to a lack of motivation[.9], many give up their instrumental studies (Comeau et al., 2019; Renwick & McPherson, 2002). According to SDT, a supportive environment is needed to satisfy these three necessities.
Comeau and colleagues (2019) developed their questionnaire about self-initiative, regulated behavior, and self-determination, which is now available in English, French, Greek, Chinese, Polish, and Spanish. The development of the current version of the questionnaire was preceded by a multistep process. Focus group interviews were conducted involving students, parents, and teachers. The measurement instrument initially contained 18 statements that had to be evaluated on a seven-point Likert scale. The same number of subscales were created for the final version, thereby increasing internal consistency (Comeau et al., 2019).
Findings of Social Influences on Motivation to Learn Musical Instruments
Parents have a decisive role in all areas of education, including music (McPherson & Zimmerman, 2002). The results of Bíró et al. (2020) proved that the sociocultural environment influences children's musical education. The active involvement of parents is important in artistic training; thus, parents are an important motivational factor for musical activity. Participating in musical activities and setting an example are motivating for children (Szűcs et al., 2023). In addition to passing on their values and attitudes, parents also help their children's musical development by creating the conditions necessary for practice (Hallam et al., 2016). In adolescence, positive parental involvement is manifested in the support of autonomy and independence (Upitis et al., 2017). According to the research of Váradi and Józsa (2023), participation in extracurricular musical activities is influenced by both the family and the school.
In addition to parents, teachers also play a very important role in terms of students’ studies. Creech (2009) examined parent, teacher, and student interactions. Effective learning and teaching require good communication, mutual respect, the establishment of common goals, and child-centeredness. Teachers must also pay attention to the motivation of students during the delivery of course material. According to Bonneville-Roussy et al. (2013), the support of teachers can be manifested in helping daily practice and stimulating the learning process.
The teaching style can be either controlling or autonomy-supportive to students (Bonneville-Roussy et al., 2020). A teacher with a controlling style emphasizes only their own point of view and influences the students’ actions, thoughts, and feelings accordingly (Reeve, 2009). Conversely, an autonomy-supportive teaching style encourages student independence, fostering a sense of ownership and intrinsic motivation. Renwick and McPherson (2002) confirm the positive effect of autonomy support: Students who experience this are more persistent and mainly internally motivated toward learning (Bonneville-Roussy et al., 2013; Evans, 2015).
It is important to note that in SDT, individuals naturally strive to grow and learn, which drives their motivation toward activities such as practicing or learning an instrument (Deci & Ryan, 2015). In this context, the focus is on motivation to start learning, continue playing, and practice an instrument regularly as components of the broader process of learning an instrument.
The third determining influence is the participation of friends and peers in the process of learning an instrument. Peers also play an important role in the development of attitudes and values related to music learning, shaping musical taste and interest in music (Längler et al., 2018; Sichivitsa, 2007).
The Institutional Background of Learning Instruments
In Hungary, music education takes place in various types of schools. The study by Szűcs and Héjja (2017) describes the institutions that the Hungarian education system provides for students. All students take compulsory music classes in elementary school, which primarily provides basic musical knowledge and general musical literacy. Within the public education system, it is also possible for parents to choose a primary school with a music department or a class specialized in music, where their child can participate in compulsory choir singing in addition to an increased number of hours of music education. Primary art education institutions (AMIs) operate in special institutional forms within the public education system, which can be state-, foundation-, church- or privately run (Szűcs & Héjja, 2017). According to the legal definition in the education system defined by the Ministry of Education (MOE), it shall be the duty of primary art schools to develop art skills, promote art talents, and, if required, prepare for the continuation of art studies (Váradi et al., 2024). Participation in the training is subject to a tuition fee. In these institutions, instrumental and vocal education takes place in the framework of tutorial lessons. Students admitted pay a fee of the same amount at the beginning of the course, which varies according to bands depending on the academic average in the higher years. The next level of instrumental, theoretical, and vocal training is realized in the framework of secondary grammar schools specialized in music. Following the traditions of secondary schools of music (conservatories), effectively the legal predecessors of these institutions, the condition for participation in secondary education is the successful completion of an aptitude test, the system of expectations of which may differ from institution to institution (Héjja, 2018). Secondary school training is closely related to primary music education (Váradi et al., 2024). The framework of the five-year program offers general academic and professional training, the main purpose of which is to provide education for the musician's profession, as well as to develop the competencies necessary for successful tertiary music education (Szűcs & Héjja, 2017).
Aim and Research Questions
In this research, the authors aim to investigate the influence of parents, teachers, and peers on students’ motivation to learn musical instruments. The following research questions are addressed in the study.
RQ1: Which motivational dimension best characterizes students’ motivation to learn an instrument? RQ2: What are the differences in students’ motivation to learn, continue, and practice musical instruments based on gender and age? RQ3: What are the predicting effects of students’ social environment on their overall motivation to learn, continue, and practice musical instruments?
Methods
Participants
Parental permission was obtained by visiting separate schools where music programs were offered. Participation was voluntary and confidential, with the option for students to withdraw at any time. After receiving written consent from parents, data collection proceeded using an anonymous online questionnaire administered by the researchers. The study included 264 music students aged 9–19, comprising 107 boys and 157 girls. The students played a variety of instruments, including the zither, cello, recorder, flute, guitar, accordion, violin, clarinet, horn, oboe, saxophone, trumpet, tuba, piano, and percussion.
In alignment with Levpušček's (2006) study on age divisions, we categorized the students into three groups based on their developmental stages and average years of playing experience: early adolescents (9–13 years), mid-adolescents (14–16 years), and late adolescents (17–19 years).
Early adolescents (n = 88): These students had been playing an instrument for an average of three years (M = 3.44, SD = 2.02). Most students played wind and keyboard instruments, with fewer playing percussion and plucked instruments. Seven students played multiple instruments. Mid-adolescents (n = 109): These students had been playing instruments for an average of six years (M = 6.42, SD = 2.85). The most commonly played instruments in this group were keyboard and stringed instruments, followed by wind instruments. Five students played percussion instruments, and 19 students played multiple instruments. Late adolescents (n = 66): These students had been playing instruments for an average of nine years (M = 8.84, SD = 3.07). The most common instruments were keyboard, wind, strings, and plucked instruments. No student in this age group played percussion, but this group had the highest percentage of students playing multiple instruments.
The age groups were determined to reflect different stages of musical development and experience. The researcher personally administered the questionnaires and analyzed the data to ensure consistency and accuracy in the research process.
Instrument
Motivation Questionnaire
A self-report questionnaire, the motivation for learning music (MLM) questionnaire (Comeau et al., 2019), was used for data collection. The students evaluated the motivational statements on a five-point Likert scale. The MLM questionnaire assesses various dimensions of motivation as proposed by SDT. It examines reasons for starting to learn an instrument, as well as the structure and hierarchy of external and internal motives that influence the continuation and regular practice of learning an instrument. The questionnaire is based on SDT and consists of five subscales, each of which is related to one dimension of motivation. The adaptation of the Hungarian version of the questionnaire is described in the study by Földi and Józsa (2022). The MLM questionnaire was developed through a precise multistep process to ensure its validity and reliability (Cronbach's alpha > 0.7; composite reliability > 0.7, and average extracted value > 0.5). This process included an extensive literature review, expert consultations, pilot testing, and psychometric analysis. The questionnaire has been translated into multiple languages and used frequently in the last five years due to its strong theoretical foundation and practical applicability in diverse educational contexts. The widespread use of the MLM questionnaire highlights its effectiveness in assessing motivational constructs across different cultural settings. The purpose of the questionnaire is to reveal the reason for starting to learn an instrument, as well as the structure and hierarchy of external and internal motives behind the decision. We can place the different dimensions of motivation on an axis with unmotivated at one end and intrinsic motivation at the other. Between the two endpoints lies extrinsic motivation, which includes external regulation, introjection, and identification. In extrinsic motivation, action can be stimulated by achieving a reward or avoiding punishment (external regulation), anxiety, self-evaluation (introjection) or awareness, and intentionality (identification). Identification is very similar to intrinsic motivation, but the former is based on a sense of value, while the latter is based on enjoyment and interest (Evans, 2015; Renwick & Reeve, 2012). Table 2 presents the motivation dimensions and their corresponding example items.
Dimensions of motivation and manifestations of behavior with musical aspects.
Note: Adapted from Evans (2015, p.76) and Hoffman (2015, p.146).
Motivation dimensions and examples of the items.
Role of the Social Environment
The background questions examine the role of parents, teachers, and friends. To measure the role of parents we created three categories:
1. Questions connected to starting learning instruments:
To what extent was the student's decision influenced by the parents’ opinion of whether their child does or does not have a talent for learning instruments?
Did parental coercion play a role in starting to learn an instrument?
2. Shared programs with the family:
Do you go to classical or pop concerts together or do you listen to music together?
Is it typical for the family to play music together?
3. Statements related to the support of learning instruments:
My parents attend my performances. My parents monitor how much I practice. My parents encourage me to practice. My parents consult my teacher on how to help me learn my instrument. My parents see it as important that I learn an instrument. The teacher's opinion – whether the student has talent or not – played a role in starting to learn an instrument. My teachers help me when I get stuck. My teachers help me practice at home. I can decide what pieces to learn. My friends had a role in my starting to learn an instrument. I like learning with my friends. My friends support my learning an instrument. My friends attend my performances. My friends consider learning an instrument important.
We set four statements related to teachers:
Five statements were worded with reference to friends:
Results
The consistency of our research results will be examined with the reliability indicators of the questionnaire. After that, we examine the effect of external incentives in connection with the motivation dimensions. Table 3 shows the items of each motivational dimension, the Cronbach-α values for the factors, and the averages and standard deviations of the motivation dimensions for the entire sample. The reliability of the questionnaire is adequate for all five factors. The differences between the averages of the motivation dimensions are significant (Wilks’ Lambda = 0.21, F(4) = 248.67, p < .01, η² = 0.79). Based on the averages of the motivation scales, the level of amotivation is the lowest, and intrinsic motivation is the highest. This means that the students participating in the measurement typically started learning musical instruments with internal motivation. The results match the results of the previous study (Józsa et al., 2022).
Reliabilities, means, and SDs of the scales of the questionnaire.
Table 4 shows the positive and negative correlations between the five motivation dimensions. Based on SDT, the motivation dimensions can be described as a continuum during which learning and action become more and more independent. We can distinguish between autonomous and controlled motives. At one end of the continuum is a lack of motivation, and at the other end is intrinsic motivation. External control reduces intrinsic motivation, which explains the negative correlation between external control and intrinsic motivation (Ryan & Deci, 2017). External and internal regulations affect the intention to learn a musical instrument to different degrees, but significantly, so the two types of regulation cannot be treated separately (MacIntyre et al., 2018; Ryan & Deci, 2017). Comparing the results obtained by Comeau et al. (2019) with the results of the current measurement, we found that the correlations between the amotivation and intrinsic motivation dimensions are of different strength (z = −4.19, p < .01). Cultural factors, contextual differences, and the size of the sample may be behind the difference.
Correlations between motivation factors.
Note: Find the values of the research by Comeau et al. (2019) above the diagonal and the values of present research below the diagonal **p < .01
Analysis of variance (ANOVA) was performed to compare subsamples based on age. There is a significant difference between the age groups in the individual motivation dimensions (Table 5), except for introjection. Lack of motivation characterizes the youngest age group significantly more than the oldest students. Based on the post-analysis, the average of the mid-adolescents does not differ significantly from the total population average. Based on the averages of the three age groups, it can be said that as time progresses, students become more and more internally motivated toward learning instruments.
Motivational differences between age groups.
Based on the individual ages, it can be observed that different motivational dimension structures are typical for the three groups. Early adolescents are mostly internally motivated to learn musical instruments. Comparing the averages of the five dimensions, we found significant differences (Wilks’ Lambda = .27, F(4) = 55.92, p < .01, η² = 0.73), except between introjection and external regulation, and between introjection and identification. The similarities can be traced back to several factors. One possible reason could be that the students have a similar motivational environment. Furthermore, in the context of the sentences characterizing the given motivational dimension, the students could not differentiate. In the case of mid-adolescents, the average of each motivational dimension differs significantly (Wilks’ Lambda = .19, F(4) = 113.54, p < .01, η² = 0.81). There is also a difference between the motivation dimensions in the oldest age group (Wilks’ Lambda = .07, F(4) = 200.85, p < .01, η² = 0.93), except between amotivation and external regulation. The agreement of the averages can be traced back to similar reasons: similar environment, differences in context, the low number of items in the groups, and the variability of individual differences.
Girls typically show more interest in learning musical instruments (Janurik, 2009). In our research, the proportion of girls is higher than that of boys, and this trend can also be observed at national and international levels (Hallam, 2002). None of the five dimensions of motivation to learn a musical instrument showed a significant difference between boys and girls (Table 6). For girls (Wilks’ Lambda = .25, F(4) = 75.93, p < .01, η² = 0.77) and boys (Wilks’ Lambda = .17, F(4) = 188.49, p < .01, η² = 0.83), there are significant differences in the average scores across the motivation dimensions. For boys, in one case there is no significant difference between amotivation and external regulation. Our results are in line with the research conducted by Hallam et al. (2020), which did not show a significant difference between the motivation of boys and girls. Few factors have been identified in international research to examine motivation factors between genders.
Gender differences in motivation.
The Role of the Family
According to research, parents, as external factors, influence students’ motivation and persistence. Parental support includes several activities. One part is musical programs shared with the child, such as going to concerts or listening to music. Support can also take the form of attending their child's performances, talking to them about music, or encouraging them to practice (Sichivitsa, 2007). Based on the literature, we examined the role of parents in our research in view of the following aspects regarding the opinions of the students: what role they played in their child's decision to learn an instrument, what kind of shared musical activities they participate in, how they are present in their child's practice, and how important parents are to instrument learning.
According to 79% of the students, the fact that their parents believed that they had (or would have) the talent to learn a given instrument played a role in their starting to learn an instrument, but in 76% there was no parental pressure to start learning an instrument. There is a weak correlation between the two statements (r = 0.21, p < .05). Those parents who consider it important to learn an instrument tend to go to classical music concerts together with their children (r = .28, p < .01). In the family, 70% of the students play instruments, 38% of students go to classical concerts, while 37% go to pop concerts together with their families. Those who go to classical music concerts with their parents typically play music together with their families (r = .33, p < .01). In total 88% of the students listen to music together with their families, while 31% of them play music with them. The relationship between parental care and the consumption of culture is also confirmed by Váradi et al. (2024).
According to the students, 80% of parents typically attend their performances; 35% of parents regularly, 23% not always, and 42% never check on their child's practice. In addition to monitoring, encouraging practice is also particularly important; 69% of the surveyed students are regularly encouraged to do so by their parents. According to Creech (2010), attendance at performances is correlated with whether they monitor their children's practice, which is confirmed by our results. In our research, monitoring practice and encouraging practice also show a medium strength correlation (r = .54, p < .01). Parents who attend their children's performance monitor their children's practice (r = .38**, p < .01) and encourage them to practice (r = .40**, p < .01).
Overall 61% of students think that their parents consider learning an instrument to be important, but at the same time, 47% of parents do not ask their children's teachers how they can help them learn an instrument. Consulting the teacher is correlated with attending performances (r = .33**, p < .01), monitoring practice (r = .56**, p < .01) and encouraging practice (r = .44**, p < .01). How important parents consider learning a musical instrument is correlated with attending performances (r = .31**, p < .01), monitoring practice (r = .47**, p < .01), encouraging practicing (r = .47**, p < .01) and consulting the teacher (r = .46**, p < .01). Parental support can enhance the enjoyment of learning an instrument, which in turn promotes self-esteem and motivation (Briscoe, 2016).
Based on the family background and the support provided by parents in learning musical instruments, there is no significant difference between boys and girls. The perception of talent by parents did not significantly influence the decision to start learning a musical instrument either for boys (M = 0.77, SD = 0.42) or girls (M = 0.80, SD = 0.40, F = 1.54, p = .22; t = −0.63, p = .53). It is similarly uncommon for both boys (M = 0.41, SD = 0.50) and girls (M = 0.33, SD = 0.47) to be pressured by their parents to learn an instrument (F = 5.50, p = .02; t = 1.27, p = .21). Considering the family supports to students’ musical interests, there are significant differences in genders, especially attending classical concerts, in which boys outperformed girls. In other family supports, such as encouraging practice and playing music together with parents, girls scored higher than boys. However, no significant differences were found between genders in other cases of family support, such as attending pop concerts, encouraging practice, monitoring practice, consulting with teachers, or how important the parents consider learning instruments (Table 7).
Gender differences based on family supports.
There is no significant difference between the age groups in whether the parent thinks their child does or does not have a talent for playing an instrument (F = 1.65, p = .19). The views across different age groups concur that parental coercion did not affect their decision (F = 1.82, p = .17). There is no difference in the perception of joint family programs, such as going to classical music concerts (F = 1.04, p = .36) or pop concerts (F = 1.64, p = .20), listening to music together (F = 0.71, p = .49), playing music together with the family (F = 3.42, p = .06), or how important it is for parents to learn an instrument (F = 2.37, p = .10).
McPherson and Davidson (2002) examined the role of mothers in practice. In their results, the mothers were able to assess the extent to which their child needed support. In order for the need to practice to become internal, factors on the part of the parent are necessary, such as: monitoring the teacher's feedback, being present during the practice, and reminding the child to practice (Turmezeyné & Balogh, 2009).
Table 8 illustrates the differences between age groups. Based on the results, it is more typical for the youngest students that their parents play a greater supportive role in the process of learning an instrument.
The role of the family in the process of learning an instrument.
In the study, a combined indicator of the role of parents was created. In Table 9, the findings show the correlation between the role of parents and the motivation dimensions, categorized by age group. According to SDT, intrinsic motivation and identification represent the highest levels. External regulation and introjection are forms of controlled motivation that contribute to students’ persistence. While these motivations make actions valuable to them, they are not based on pleasure. A supportive external environment increases students’ motivation (Oliveira et al., 2023).
Correlations of parents’ role and motivation dimensions broken down by age groups.
Note: **p < .01, *p < .05.
The results show that the motivation of the eldest students is not correlated with the parents’ role. The reason for the positive correlation with intrinsic motivation may be that the parents provided autonomy for their children, by allowing them to make an independent decision to start learning an instrument. Positive feedback from parents helps students feel progress during their studies. By fulfilling these needs, students become more intrinsically motivated to learn an instrument.
The Role of Teachers
Besides parents, the role of music teachers is one of the most decisive. Students are more motivated when teachers are supportive and cooperative, explain the learning material clearly, give straightforward instructions and positive feedback, and take students’ needs into account (Pitts, 2004; Sichivitsa, 2007).
According to 64% of the students, the teacher's belief in their talent influenced their decision to start learning an instrument. According to 96% of the students, they get help from the teacher if they get stuck. According to 88% of the students, their teachers assist with practicing at home, while 77% indicate they have the freedom to independently choose the pieces they learn. There is no significant difference between boys and girls in the assessment of the teacher's role (Table 10).
Differences between genders regarding the teacher's role.
The age groups have the same opinion regarding the role of the teacher. However, there is a significant difference between the age groups in the independent choice of pieces (F = 5.32, p < .01). Fewer early adolescents (M = 0.66, SD = 0.48) believe that they can choose a piece to learn independently than mid-adolescents (M = 0.85, SD = 0.36). The opinion of the oldest age group (M = 0.78, SD = 0.42) does not differ from that of the population average. There is no difference between the age groups regarding whether the teacher had a role in their starting learning a musical instrument, whether the teacher thinks they are talented (F = 0.82, p = .44), whether they get help in case they get stuck (F = 0.96, p = .38) and in supporting practice at home (F = 1.06, SD = 0.35).
We combined the statements used to learn about the role of teachers. The correlations between the obtained variable and the motivation were also examined based on age groups. In the results, it was found that there is no significant correlation between the role of teachers and the motivation in the oldest age group (Table 11).
The teachers’ influence on individual motivation dimensions by age groups (correlation).
Note: **p < .01, *p < .05.
According to SDT, learning is gradually transformed with the development of students’ skills. The initially teacher-directed action becomes a self-regulated action, in which students gradually assume more responsibility (Virkkula, 2020). A supportive and stimulating environment provided by the teachers – the combined effect of autonomy, competence and the need for connection – will make students more intrinsically motivated. Without these elements, amotivation is more likely to arise.
The Role of Friends
The influence of friends can be both positive and negative. Evans and colleagues (2013) point out that for high school students, application for membership in an orchestra generates a kind of pressure on the students. They felt that it was not as popular as other activities (e.g., sports), and their friends did not think it was as “cool”; therefore they felt ostracized and preferred to stop learning instruments to be more socially accepted. On the However, applying to the orchestra also contributes to the formation of new relationships and knowledge.
In the research, we approached the exploration of the role of friends from several points of view. The first aspect was the extent to which friends influenced the initiation of learning a musical instrument. Other aspects were how they influenced the choice of instrument and how much they support learning an instrument and consider it important. Overall 37% of students believed that their friends played a role in starting to learn an instrument and 11% in choosing an instrument. A total of 48% of students are supported by their friends, and 36% go to their performances, but only 45% think that it is important for their friends to learn an instrument.
Boys and girls have different opinions about how important and supportive their friends are of learning an instrument. Girls rate their friends’ support more positively (Girls: M = 3.52, SD = 1.48, Boys: M = 2.82, SD = 1.53, F = 0.17, p = .68; t = −3.63, p < .01) and also how important their friends consider learning an instrument (Girls: M = 3.54, SD = 1.41, Boys: M = 2.82, SD = 1.46, F = 0.15, p = .70; t = −3.29, p < .01). There is no difference between boys and girls regarding whether their friends influenced their choice of a musical instrument (F = 11.40, p < .01; t = −1.73, p = .09), if they played a role in their decisions to start learning an instrument (F = 0.12, p = .75; t = 0.17, p = .86), how much they like practicing with friends (F = 0.13, p = .71; t = −1.35, p = .18), and if their friends attend their performances (F = 0.07, p = .79; t = −0.33, p = .74).
Students of different ages have different views on the role of friends (Table 12). According to the students in the youngest age group, friends had a decisive role in choosing the instrument and starting the learning process.
Possible friends’ support roles.
We also compared the role of friends as a combined indicator and the correlation between motivation dimensions broken down by age. Table 13 clearly shows that for the oldest students, all motivation dimensions are related to the role of friends. The strength of the correlations by age group does not differ significantly.
Correlations between the role of friends and the motivation dimensions.
Note: **p < .01, *p < .05.
The influence of friends is present in all motivation dimensions. The weaker the support friends provide, the more amotivated the student becomes. Based on the external regulation, it is possible that a child starts playing an instrument because of their friends, or because they want to learn with them. Friends can set an example by showing how much they enjoy playing music, motivating the student to persist in learning. A supportive and helpful environment of friends can promote persistence and commitment and also provide emotional support, which is one of the necessities of SDT.
Based on the regression analysis, students aged 14–16 are the most affected by extrinsic motivation (Table 14). For the youngest students, the parents typically influence the students the most, while for the oldest students, the feedback from friends is the most authoritative. The reason for the different effects of extrinsic motivation may be that students’ autonomy and independence increase with age. Students’ learning style also changes a lot over the years, so they prefer different support at each age. Overall, students’ personalities, needs, and relationships also change, because of which the effect of extrinsic motivation also varies.
Regression analysis with intrinsic motivation as dependent variable.
Discussion
International research has already examined the influence of extrinsic and intrinsic motivation on learning a musical instrument through the approach of several motivational theories. According to Hallam (2013), commitment to music is predicted by musical activities like listening to music, attending concerts, and involvement in playing music, as well as a supportive environment (family, friends, and teachers) and self-confidence. The initial research on SDT was focused on identifying the relationship between intrinsic and extrinsic motivation (Ryan & Deci, 2020). According to the theory, different levels of motivation can be distinguished based on the control and motivation associated with the execution of each action. Due to the complexity of behavior, extrinsic and intrinsic motivation must be considered together. If a student is highly motivated to perform an activity, they are simultaneously influenced by both types of motives – extrinsic and intrinsic (MacIntyre et al., 2018; Ryan & Deci, 2017). According to SDT, social relations and relatedness play a prominent role (Evans, 2015).
The authors also investigated the relationship between social relations and various aspects of motivation in learning musical instruments, including the motivation to start learning, to continue playing, and to practice regularly. A questionnaire based on SDT was used to interpret motivation. The reliability of the MML questionnaire is adequate for all factors. The pattern of correlations between the scales of the questionnaire met the theoretical expectations.
The role of parents is also crucial among the students in this study. Importantly, in the sample examined, starting to learn an instrument did not occur due to parental pressure, and there was no significant difference between boys and girls. From the point of view of parents’ influence, there were differences between the age groups regarding attendance at performances, monitoring practice, encouraging practice, consulting the teacher, and judgment of the importance of learning an instrument. It was found in the research that parents had more influence at a younger age. This result is in line with the previous studies (Hallam et al., 2016; Szűcs et al., 2023) which showed the importance of parents’ role in helping students learn musical instruments. Comparing the influence of parents with the motivation dimensions, it is obvious that in older students this is correlated with external regulation, and in younger students with introjection, identification, and intrinsic motivation. This may be because students become more and more independent with age and increasingly make their own decisions. According to Evans (2015), students who start learning an instrument driven by intrinsic motivation rather than extrinsic factors may feel unstable because of external pressures, such as excessive praise or control. This also results in a stronger extrinsic motivation. According to Hallam's (2002) study, parental support is not always necessary for the development of an interest in music, but at the same time, the presence of supportive parents can positively influence children's motivation to learn music (Sichivitsa, 2007).
Teachers also have a key role. According to Degner et al. (2003), a good teacher sets specific goals, provides feedback to students, and helps to correct mistakes. According to the students surveyed, their teachers supported them in practicing at home and also provided them with the opportunity to independently choose a piece to learn. There were no gender differences in teachers’ assessments regarding their learning of musical instruments. In connection with the motivation dimensions, there was a negative correlation between lack of motivation and the teacher's role in the age groups from 12 to 19 years old, that is, the less support and encouragement they receive from their teachers, the more amotivated they become. This result aligns with the previous studies (Bonneville-Roussy et al., 2020; Comeau et al., 2019; Reeve, 2009; Renwick & McPherson, 2002) presenting the importance of teachers’ support for students’ actions, thoughts, feelings, and effective learning in music education.
The third group of external incentives includes friends or peers. We found a significant differences in the perception of friends between the boys and girls surveyed. According to the girls, friends are more supportive and consider learning an instrument more important compared to boys. In age comparison, there was no difference in whether friends played a role in starting to learn an instrument. This may be in line with SDT, highlighting the importance of a supportive environment of motivation in starting to learn an instrument (Comeau et al., 2019; Renwick & McPherson, 2002; Ryan & Deci, 2020). In the results, significant differences are clearly shown for older students, that is, in the older age group, friends and peers play the biggest role since all five motivation dimensions of SDT are correlated with the role of friends. We did not find any correlation in students aged 9–13. The results showing the importance of peers in learning musical instruments align with previous studies (Längler et al., 2018; Sichivitsa, 2007). Therefore, we can consider the role of friends as important in learning musical instruments.
Limitations
The specific characteristics of the Hungarian educational system may limit the generalization of the results to other educational systems where music education is structured differently. The age differences were inferred from a cross-sectional study. In future research, it would be advisable to carry out a longitudinal analysis. The questionnaire yielded quantitative results obtained from self-declaration. It may be advisable to use other methods in addition to the questionnaire and also to involve parents and teachers in the study. This way we can get a more complete picture of the motivation of students learning to play an instrument.
Conclusion
In summary, it can be concluded that SDT provides a suitable framework for understanding the motivation to learn a musical instrument. Most of the students included in the study did not start their instrumental studies due to external pressure. There is no difference between boys and girls in the motivation dimensions or the roles of family and teachers. At the same time, girls judge the support of friends more positively. We found significant differences between the age groups included in the study both in motivation dimensions and in the role of social incentives. As students get older, they require different types of support. At the beginning of their studies, parents and teachers have more influence, and later the influence of peers becomes more decisive. Based on the correlations between the examined social environment and the motivation dimensions, it can be concluded that creating a supportive learning environment enhances students’ motivation throughout their learning process. Our results can be important for both parents and teachers, reducing dropout rates in learning musical instruments.
Footnotes
Action Editor
Kelly Jakubowski, Department of Music, Durham University.
Peer Review
Maria Varvarigou, Arts Education and Physical Education, Mary Immaculate College; Matthew Schatt, University of Cincinnati.
Declaration of Conflicting Interests
The authors declared no potential conflicts of interest with respect to the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article.
Ethical Approval
The study was conducted according to the guidelines of the Declaration of Helsinki and approved by the Institutional Review Board of University of Szeged, Doctoral School of Education (10/2021, June 19, 2021).
Funding
The authors disclosed receipt of the following financial support for the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article: This study was funded by the Scientific Foundations of Education Research Program of the Hungarian Academy of Sciences and by the Digital Society Competence Centre of the Humanities and Social Sciences Cluster of the Centre of Excellence for Interdisciplinary Research, Development and Innovation of the University of Szeged. The authors are members of the New Tools and Techniques for Assessing Students Research Group.
Data Availability Statement
The data that support the findings of this study are available from the corresponding author, upon reasonable request.