The doors they choose: Solutions to “The Lady or the Tiger”

Abstract

We consider the extent that elementary preservice teachers enrolled in a social studies methods course expressed empathy for story characters when solving the story’s emotionally ladened problem. We believe that the manner by which these students resolved one character’s dilemma informs about the nature of their own emotions. Participants read Frank Stockton’s story, “The Lady and the Tiger” toward the beginning and at the conclusion of the semester. The data represented all student responses to the prompt, “Read the short story at the following link. To what door do you think the princess directed the accused? What is the reason for your choice?” Forty-two students completed both reflections of the reading. The analysis found that in their initial reflections, a solid majority of students selected the tiger. At the end of the course, this percentage decreased to a smaller majority. Analysis of the six students who changed their perspectives of the princess’s decision found that five referenced course experiences in their explaining the reason for change. This paper fills a gap in social studies research about emotions and decision-making. Additional research needs to interpret the specific nature of these emotions and the conditions that influence them.

Introduction

Empathy represents an essential dispositional trait for social educators. The ability to sense and respond to feelings within students, colleagues, and administrators informs a teacher's potential to negotiate and endure their professional environment.

Attention to emotional elements of learning represents an important facet of interpreting emotional dynamics that may affect teaching and learning outcomes. Scholarship in social studies education suffers from inattention to theoretical constructs for students’ emotional development (Helmsing, 2014; Sheppard et al., 2015). Garrett and Kerr’s (2016) analysis of social studies scholarship that concerned social studies research that employed esthetic texts found, among other themes, that esthetic texts enhance the learning and foster student engagement and higher-level thinking. To explain the reasons for these outcomes, they drew from outside literature to describe three lenses (esthetic engagement, esthetic conflict, and relational esthetics) for interpreting interactions between students and the esthetic texts that they encounter in the classroom. These theories invite a more nuanced vision of social studies education that explores “an indeterminacy of what comes from interacting with different accounts of and experiences in, the social world” (525).

In this paper, we consider the extent to which, in their solving the story's emotional dilemma, preservice teachers (PSTs) enrolled in an elementary social studies methods course expressed empathy for story characters. We believe that how these PSTs resolved one character's emotional roots to solve a dilemma informs us about the nature of PSTs’ emotions and patterns of empathy that they may experience. This information may lead to strategies for developing senses of care and compassion within PSTs who experience overt patterns of anger that could prevent their facilitation of caring professional settings.

The importance of this research study relates to the nature of social studies teacher identity and its relationship to professional decision-making. As do teachers in K-12 settings, instructors of PSTs provide their students with intellectual stimuli to evoke their students’ mindful responses Yet, the manners by which students respond to these stimuli relate to the emotional underpinnings that guide their patterns of discourse (Narvaez, 2014; Panksepp and Biven, 2012). Such knowledge informs about how student background shapes their responses to social studies content and how teachers may anticipate and respond to these conditions.

Literature

Although social studies scholarship speaks about the importance of emotional responses to learning, until recently, nominal efforts attempt to theorize or interpret the origins and outcomes of their presence (Sheppard et al., 2015). Esthetic texts (such as paintings, photographs, and songs) offer potential to stimulate critical and empathetic thinking (e.g. Booth, 1997; Garrett & Kerr, 2016). These experiences have been demonstrated to stimulate learning of concepts that relate to social justice and economics (e.g. Laney et al., 1996; Lucey and Henning, 2021; Lucey and Laney, 2012).

Moral development and education

Lawrence Kohlberg's seminal research in moral education produced three models that explain the substance of his moral vision: stages, types, and environments (Snarey and Samuelson, 2008). Although much literature focuses on the stages of moral development, the nature of one's moral presence ultimately relates to an individual's moral orientation and one's environmental setting. Darcia Narvaez and colleagues perceive these two influences as being mutually influential (Narvaez, 2014; Narvaez et al., 2013).

The interpretation of one's moral dispositions may relate to an interpretation of one's responses to a moral dilemma. Yet, identifying individual's overall disposition and developmental contexts provides a deeper interpretation of his or her moral identity.

Empathy and compassion

Empathy represents an emotion of investigation interest to this study because of its role in the development of mutually respectful community. According to Broom (2010), “Fostering humanity requires care … students require teachers who care about them, who nurture them as they grow in knowledge” (10). The ability to identify with the emotions of others represents an essential trait for a critically minded democratic citizen. Civil dialog cannot occur without parties to conversation appreciating and responding to the emotions at the foundations of each other's perspectives.

Compassion represents an essential component of preparing for this citizenship. Sage et al. (2012) observe the importance of developing healthy interactions with students that engage them in compassionate processes. Facilitating an environment of care necessitates teachers who possess the openness to genuinely interpret and commiserate with students’ emotional states to assist their navigation of emotionally intensive experiences that shape their social knowledge.

According to Bullough (2019), empathy represents a complex experience that requires both perspective taking and imagination. He suggested that cognitive control, which engages a deliberate and discerning process to plan actions, differs from emotionally driven reactive approaches. However, measuring empathy presents challenges, according to Bullough, who cites criticism of widely used attitudinal instrumentation and observations that the nature of empathy employment represents a situational process. He also noted risks with regard to excessive empathy, false (insincere) empathy, and an emphasis of social justice over moral practice.

His distinction between cognitive control and emotionally driven processes differs from theory that claims affective roots drive patterns of cognition (Narvaez, 2014; Panksepp and Biven, 2012). Thus, one may interpret cognitive control as a set of affective processes that respond to a tense environment.

Empathy can represent a process that focuses on a particular learning activity. Jaber et al. (2018) described their efforts to develop epistemic empathy within preservice mathematics and science double-majors. Although they note seven manners by which students expressed empathy, they also presented three tensions: efforts to correct work, choosing students for class participation, and protecting student emotions. Warren (2018) points out the importance of recognizing the complexity of teacher dispositions when interpreting empathy, noting

Dispositions should not be assumed to be disconnected, isolated teacher moves. Rather they represent (a) visible patterns in behavior demonstrated by teachers as they are interacting with individual students, (b) their priorities with (certain groups of) youth, and (c) the habits of mind that drive other aspects of their professional decision-making (172).

Strategies for teaching empathy inform multicultural contexts. For example, McAllister and Irvine (2002) present findings from the analysis of teacher practices after a culturally responsive professional development training, which emphasized culturally responsive pedagogy, cultural awareness, and content adaptation. Teachers reported class simulation, community engagement, and personal reflection as contributing to empathy development. Parker (2016) presents examples of three elementary classrooms that use simulation and debate to stimulate peacebuilding. She observes individual differences in student responses to the activities and recommended “…teachers (engage) students to challenge hegemonic assumptions and promote inclusive spaces…includ(ing) forms of peacebuilding education, such as councils, circle time, diverse student representation on governing bodies, and critical pedagogy to address inequalities” (129).

The presented literature indicates that empathy represents a process of balance of openness and control. Too little empathy provides for an environment of remoteness, exclusion, and insensitivity. The basis of community in this environment may represent one of functional necessity and objectivity that views others as means to social purposes. Yet, possessing too much empathy also challenges social wellness. It prompts an environment of social suffocation, intrusiveness, and overbearing. A healthy vision of empathy involves a process of moderation in which a balance exists.

Our purpose here is to consider the patterns of empathy expressed in a convenience sample of PSTs and the possibilities for their change. Garrett and Kerr (2016) assert, “the use of aesthetic texts is so compelling because of the degree to which their use invites the consideration of some of our most intimate connections and memories” (525).

This paper describes a research study that analyzed patterns of empathy among PSTs enrolled in an activity-based social studies methods course. The study interpreted participants’ articulation and explanation of solutions to a dilemma presented in a fictional text. In consideration of the difficulties of empathy measurement perceived by Bullough (2019), we perceive the solutions presented by participants as vehicles for illuminating their identification with others.

Methods

This study was conducted in a large teacher education program at a public university in the USA. Participants were 4th-year undergraduate elementary education licensure students. The bulk of the course taught a variety of social studies content areas (e.g. psychology, sociology, and geography) and their applications through the use of activities and a supporting text. The instructor/researcher sandwiched these experiences between readings of two revisionist social studies texts, James Loewen's Lies my Teacher Told Me (2007) and Roxanne Dunbar-Ortiz's (2014) Indigenous People's History of the United States. Class activities employed a variety of strategies such as role-play, court simulation, and problem-solving to engage students in discussion about social studies topics. The instructor employed a compassionate approach to classroom management that emphasized acceptance and valuing of student perspectives. Activities also required student reflection about virtues, a social studies conference, and family backgrounds (Lucey and Lorsbach, 2021).

The reflections that concerned virtues occurred throughout the semester, beginning with a precourse reflection. For the precourse assignment, the instructor presented, and students responded to, the concept of gratitude (the virtue of seeing the larger good in any situation). The other virtues covered through the semester were (in order) order, truth, courage, trust, patience, and modesty.

The first author/instructor selected the virtues from Aristotle's Nichomachian Ethics and the Jewish tradition of Mussar. Both of these sources present virtuous behavior as a balance between emotional/behavioral extremes. The instructor presented these virtues through a series of 3–4-min videos, in which he explained each virtue and its extremes, provided examples, and explained the virtue's importance in the classroom. Students then reflected on the topic and its applications and responded to a reflection of a self-selected classmate.

Participants read Frank Stockton's story (1884), The Lady or the Tiger toward the beginning (January) and at the conclusion (May) of the semester. The fictional story provides background about an ancient kingdom that administered justice through the accused's selecting one of two doors in an arena. Behind one door was a lady and behind the other a ferocious tiger. So, the story goes, the princess was caught with her suitor, and now he needs to choose the door of his sentence. The princess subtly directs him to one of the doors, knowing that the lady he could choose is her rival. The question that the reader needs to ask is to what door she directs her lover.

The story was discussed in class. Students were assigned discussion groups in which they discussed the story and their view about the door to which the lover was directed. The debriefing invited students to share their views and justify them. During the debriefing discussion, the instructor prompted students to consider the definition of love as a process of selflessness and sacrifice for another.

We chose this text because it represents a common traditional staple of elementary learning that prompts children to consider the possibility of wellness or harm that may result from decisions they make and decisions that concern them. As with those found in Kohlberg's Defining Issues Test (DIT), this dilemma provides an opportunity to interpret the emotions that respondents’ reasoning of dilemma outcomes. The scenario provides a setting that may appeal to young children.

This story provides an opportunity to interpret the empathy of the reader. It puts him or her in the perspective of the princess and to examine the motive for the decision she makes. We would suggest that the reader's emotional framework guides the nature of his or her empathy toward the princess and that the compassionate experience of the course activities could influence the nature of empathy expressed. Thus, we would expect to see some change in students’ interpretations of the story from the beginning to end of the semester.

Forty-seven students were enrolled in two sections of a social studies methods course in the spring of 2019. The participants were mostly white females. Five males and five females of color were the exception. Only 42 students completed both initial and final reflections of the reading. Given the specific experiences of these participants, we do not claim to generalize these findings to all PSTs, but rather, see this study as providing insights into the perceptions of PSTs within this setting. For the purposes of the course, the instructor did not assess or evaluate responses, but counted their submission as partial fulfillment of required class participation.

Analysis

Responses were coded as described by Strauss and Corbin (1998). This grounded-theory approach used no pre-determined codes, but instead used the guiding question of the study – what patterns of empathy were expressed by students? – to develop codes from a line-by-line analysis of the responses. The data represented all student responses to the prompt, Read the short story at the following link. To what door do you think the princess directed the accused? What is the reason for your choice? The instructor provided this prompt during the second week of the course and at course's completion.

Data totaled 27 single-spaced pages of text. Analysis began with open coding. The purpose of open coding is to “uncover, name, and develop concepts…open up the texts and expose the thoughts, ideas, and meaning contained therein” (Strauss and Corbin, 1998: 102). This process is carried out by closely examining the data for similarities and differences. Similarities were grouped together into categories. Initial open coding resulted in 24 categories. Codes were then linked together during axial coding. The responses were then recoded to account for connections between initial, open categories which resulted in eight categories. Disagreements in the coding scheme were discussed among researchers until 100% agreement was achieved to further support trustworthiness (Lincoln and Guba, 1985). Selective codes were developed to “explain, in a general sense, what is going on” (Strauss and Corbin, 1998: 145). These broader codes became themes discussed below. The student responses that follow are not inclusive of all responses submitted, but instead are representative of the ideas represented from the derived codes.

Findings

This section describes the themes found through data analysis. We first present the patterns of explanations provided by students in their initial reading of the study. We then interpret the patterns of reasoning by those who changed their perspectives in the second reading of the story. Based on this analysis, we review the explanations in the initial reading provided by those who changed their perspectives. We do this to interpret the reasons for the patterns of change.

Categories of response

Four categories of explanation themes emerged during the initial reading. Among students who chose the tiger: (1) jealousy/envy; (2) selfishness on the part of the princess; (3) biological determinism; and (4) author's intent/context. Four categories of explanation themes emerged during the initial reading from those students who chose the lady: (1) if they really were in love, then…; (2) selfishness on the part of the princess; (3) because it was not his fault; and (4) the princess could fall in love again.

The following sections provide more information about these themes and include example excerpts as support. These descriptions begin with the accounts of the reflections during the initial readings. They are followed by a description of themes found among those who changed their perspectives at the course's conclusion. All of the names are pseudonyms.

Initial reading of the story

Choosing the tiger: Jealousy/envy

Students mentioned the ideas of jealousy and/or envy 44 times. Responses that referred to jealousy or envy related to three main ideas of the students: (1) the princess’s hatred of the “fairest and loveliest” damsel of the court – the maiden that was chosen to be behind one of the door; (2) if the princess could not have the youth, then no one could; or (3) the princess, in general, was a jealous person. We provide six examples that illustrate these themes. For each case, we provide the applicable part of the reflection and the related student belief.

I believe she directed him to the door with the tiger behind it because if she could not have him, no one was going to have him … She was in love with this man, so seeing him with someone else would be too much for her to bear. She would not be able to see the person that she loves with his arms around another women … it would be less heartbreaking for her to see him pass than married to a beautiful woman every day. (Robert, Belief 2: No one else could have him.)

I think she directed him to the door of the tiger. I believe this because in the story it references her jealousy and hatred of the women behind the door … I think her emotions and jealousy got the best of her. She would rather see the man she loved die than to see him falling in love with someone else and eventually starting a family. If he wasn't around no one else could have him. (Robin, Beliefs 1 and 3: The princess hated the other woman and was a jealous person.)

I believe that the princess directed the youth to the door with the tiger. Being a barbaric, and a lady who holds grudges against other females who share affections in the same person, I firmly believe that her thinking process would be something along the lines of if I can't be with him, there is no way anyone else will be either. Another key point to my reasoning is the lady that was behind the door herself. Being a woman that the princess disliked and assuming that she was single, then the princess would also be happy knowing that she does not get to marry a person that she herself found attractive and leaving her single for a longer period of time. Either way the princess was going to lose out on the man, so why not get rid of him making sure that no one else can have him and fulfilling her barbaric desire? (Dennis, Beliefs 1, 2, and 3: The princess was jealous by nature, wanted no one else to have the man, and hated the woman.)

We observe two patterns of reasoning as undergirding the ultimate reasons for the hatred or jealousy expressed. First, a perspective of possession or dispensability toward the man undergirded this sense of hatred. The princess views the man as an object that she controls. Selecting the tiger signifies that he represents a tool that has served its purpose and that she may dispose.

Second, this sense of jealousy becomes manifest in her denial of the relationship to the lady. Again, the man represents an object that the lady cannot possess. The lady represents a rival to the princess. The princess has the power to deny the lady something that she wants. Her hatred of the woman prompts her to view the man as a tool for her pleasure, she makes the decision to cause emotional hurt. The notion of jealousy/envy articulated by these responses relates to a pattern of selfishness in which other people are viewed as means to ends and which the welfare of others depends on satisfaction of that goal. The next section contains the responses of students who realized the core sense of selfishness and the processes that it employs explain the choices.

Selfishness on the part of the princess

There is likely a very fine line between coding items between jealousy and selfishness, for example, if the princess could not have him, then no one could. But when students responded that the heartache of his death would be easier for her to bear than watching him love another for the rest of her life, we coded these as selfishness. We did so because the processes of jealousy represent projections of one's anger, whereas selfishness looks within oneself to explain decisions.

The princess would endure less heartache if she chose the door that killed the accuser. If the accuser chose the door with the tiger behind it, all the princess would have to see is blood and hear shrieks. If the accuser were to choose the door with the lady behind it, the princess would have to deal with heartache for the rest of time. She would constantly be reminded that he had to love someone else. This is the reason I believe the princess chose the door with the tiger behind it. (Ingrid)

Watching her lover being mauled by a tiger would be something she could see and be able to look back at their time together fondly, if he marries the lady her jealousy would consume her and she would not be able to think back on her happy times with him. (Ginger)

I was going back and forth on which door I would have the princess choose. I tried thinking about which of the possibilities would have the longest effect. If I chose the tiger, then the man would be eaten alive. If I chose the lady, the man will be married to another lady. The repercussion of this would be that the princess would see her love marry someone else and watch their marriage from the sidelines. After having these scenarios go running through my head, I came to the conclusion of the door with a tiger. The reason why I would want this is because if I was the princess, I would not want the love of my life to marry someone else. It is a selfish reason and there are plenty of fish in the sea, but if this man was truly the love of your life it would be harder to see him moving on than be locked in a room with a tiger. (Janet)

We observe three patterns of reasoning that undergird the interpretations of selfishness. The first consists of short-term pain. This hedonistic explanation provided by Ingrid and Douglas interprets the decision based on the quantity of displeasure that she perceives from the choice. Once the tiger completes consumption of the man, the situation is done and forgotten.

The second explanation, much similar to the first, represents a weighing or quantification of consequences. In this situation, the amount of unpleasantness represents a matter of comparison with another outcome, as articulated by Louise and Gloria's examples. The reasoning does not occur because of its own merit. Another reason becomes lynch pinned to provide an excuse.

The final reason, as reasoned by Ginger, relates to the princess’s daily reminder of the decision. The tiger provides a way of avoiding a future of seeing the man with her rival. The choice serves as a means to escape future emotional challenges associated with seeing them together.

Biological determinism

Another indicator of selfishness was the effort to blame decisions on an uncontrollable factor or influence. A category included in 19 responses was related to the notion that the princess could not help choosing the tiger because she was the daughter of a barbaric father.

Both the King and princess are semi-barbaric, which means that they are extremely cruel and brutal … As I stated before, the King and the Princess are cruel and brutal people so the princess would most likely rather see him be punished, then punish her own self for loving the youth and seeing him married to another lady. (Chelsea)

The king was semi-barbaric, and since the princess is his daughter, she probably was also semi-barbaric. (Gwen)

The conditioning from her father meant she might possess the same traits of intolerance. (Douglas)

In these examples, we observe three patterns of this interpretation of biological influence. The first is emotional/genetic. The princess possesses the same affective traits as her father and these emotions supersede the other affective influences on her decisions. Robert, Denise, Gwen, and Elizabeth provide this explanation for her decision.

The second, societal, indicates a consistency of this decision with her social peers of social class. There is a sense of superiority that causes one to be royal. The selection of the tiger expresses a consistent set of values by the superior members of society. Chelsea provides an example of this interpretation.

The final explanation relates to modeling or conditioning. Selection of the tiger is the choice that communicates knowledge and application of decision making in her family. She understands the family values and applies them to maintain that sense of living. Douglas articulates this perspective.

Author's intent/context cues

Finally, some students were reluctant to provide their opinion on what door the princess directed the youth to open; they did not entertain the moral dilemma of the story. Instead, these students looked at the reading to find clues from the author as to his intentions.

I believe that the princess chose the door with the Tiger behind it. The reason I believe she chose this is because of the way the story described what would happen to the accused if he were to open the door with the Tiger in it. Although the princess wouldn't enjoy seeing the one who she loved be killed by the Tiger, I believe based on the amount of description in the story, that she would be better off knowing he was killed when he loved her, instead of seeing him marry and love another woman. On page 6, the story describes the princess’ feelings about the accuser opening the door to the lady in many sentences, with a lot of detail … This is completely different than the part of the story where the author describes the reaction of the princess if the accuser were to choose the door with the Tiger behind it. The author uses one sentence. Because of this distinction in the amount of detail that the story included, I believe the princess chose the door with the Tiger behind it. (Ingrid)

First, the author states, “She had lost him, but who should have him?” This establishes that the princess feels as if her lover is already dead, as well as the fact she would rather him be dead than be someone else's lover. Second, the author describes the princess as semi-barbaric, willing to sit next to her father and participate in his madness even when her lover is the target. This leads me to believe that she is likely to have him killed, especially combined with her description as painfully envious. Third, when describing both dreams of her lover's potential fates, the author spends considerably more time developing the fate in which her lover is married. (Margarent)

Two patterns of context clues emerge from these comments, both relate to author emphasis. The first, relates to the emphasis on the details associated with accounts of her jealousy and anger. Much emphasis in the story relates to this background information and consequences to indicate that these emotions predominately guide the princess's decisions. The second concerns the focus on the princess’s feelings in general. Again, the author is very clear about the emotions that the princess experiences, mostly describes feelings of hatred and anxiety.

Choosing the lady

Nine students provided 18 reasons that were coded into four categories: (1) if they really were in love, then…; (2) selfishness on the part of the princess; (3) because it was not his fault; and (4) the princess could fall in love again.

If they really were in love, then…

The justification that appeared most frequently related to the definition of love. Students who initially believed the princess chose the door with the lady behind it provided this reason most frequently. Twelve of the eighteen reasons fell into this category.

I think the princess directed her loved one towards the lady. The reason for my choice is because she loved that man. I do not think if you truly love someone you would be able to knowingly send them to their deaths when you know there could be a better solution. It is better for the person to live without you, and with another, than to not live at all. (Bernice – Loves the man)

I honestly think that the princess chose the lady's door because I don't think she could watch the love of her life be killed because of her decision. I also like to think that people would rather see the person they love be alive than die in front of their eyes. I can understand why some people would say the tiger because they could say the man would hate the rest of his life because he doesn't get to be with the princess, but I still can't see that as a reason for having him killed. The princess could also have hope that the king may change the rules so they can be together one day, but she can't have that hope if she decides to have him go to the tiger. The more and more I think about it, the more I think people are crazy to pick the tiger. I would let the man make the most of his life even if it means he can't be with the princess. I think it is an easy decision that I think the majority of our class will pick the lady's door. (Xavier – Resists guilt.)

A common theme among these reflections relates to the preservation of the young man's life and her hopes that it may fulfill. Yet, another perspective relates to the avoidance of guilt sending the man to his death.

The perspective of the male student, that a choice of the lady provides him with a future gift of her presence, twists this theme a bit. The preservation of life and the respect for his hopes. This perspective suggests a true appreciation for love as a sense of selflessness. Where the others viewed the lady as a choice to better the princess's future experiences (as selfish form of reasoning), putting another's welfare above one's own represents love as a sacrifice.

The perspective may also represent an act of selfishness on the part of the student. If the student puts himself in the mind of the young man, his reasoning of the princess's decision may represent a projection of his perspective of the young man. In others words, he presents this view of the princess; however, she serves as a mask for the dilemma outcome that he seeks.

Selfishness on the part of the princess

Although most students found selfishness as a reason to choose the tiger, it was mentioned four times by the students who chose the lady. The responses were not indicative of a concern about the youth, but rather for what it meant for the princess.

I also think that she would want him to live to spite her father, as he wanted the man she loved to be punished solely for loving her. Allowing him to live would be a metaphorical spit in the face of her father, as rather than getting punished [the youth] is getting rewarded, at least in the king's eyes. (Linda)

Even though the king said that he would be happy with either outcome, I think that he would rather have seen her lover killed. In that case, that adds to my reasoning of why the princess chose the door with the lady, to make her dad angrier. (Ursula)

Both responses focus on the decision as a challenge to her father's authority. Although this represents an act of selfishness on the part of the princess, it also signifies the fickle nature of loyalty in relationships founded on anger, force, and intimidation. The students view application of anger in the princess's barbaric genetic imprints as being directed toward the father rather than the young man or the woman.

Because it was not his fault and because she could fall in love again

Two singular responses did not fit within the themes presented above. One response that did not fit in the above categories was that the princess would choose the door with the lady because it was not the youth's fault he was in this predicament.

The princess would also understand that the marriage was not his choice, and she would know that he still loves her, just as she loves him. (Denise)

Another singular response was related to the idea that the princess could always fall in love again because she deserved better.

I do think the princess would have wanted to feed him to the tiger, but if her assumptions between the glances her lover and maiden share, maybe she knows she deserves better and he deserves less. What is worse, watching the person you love die or watching the person you love fall in love? I think the princess knew she would soon fall in love again, and her ex-lover would hurt worse watching her find love verses getting mauled by a tiger. (Louise)

Both of these responses indicate a relinquishment of control on the part of the princess. She values the presence of other forces besides her need to control in the decision process. In the first instance, the realization represents an understanding of itself. In the second, the reasoning represents a weighing of alternatives.

Second (end of semester) reading

Of the 42 students who completed both an initial reflection and second reflection at the end of the semester, six students changed their mind, all from the tiger to the lady. The reasons they changed their minds are given below.

I believe that when the princess motioned to the right, she picked the lady behind the curtain. The reason that I switched my option was that I felt like the princess loved him so much and because she tossed back and forth in her decision, she had to make sure that he lived … I feel like the princess is more of a human being than her father and the reason is because she had restless nights in making this decision. You wouldn't lose sleep if you were trying to make sure you were going to make the right decision. How would you be able to look someone in the eye like she did before giving him the sign to the right to pick the tiger? She would regret if she killed off her love of her life. (Catherine)

In this reflection, Catherine attributes the princess's decision to feelings about love and guilt. There is not any reference to outside influences. The remaining five students all mentioned the virtues discussed in class as being part of their change of opinion.

I said she chose the tiger when I originally read the story, but during class when we talked about love being unselfish and that if the princess truly loves the man she would choose the door with the lady. We said that selflessness means choosing the good of someone else over your own desires even if it means it hurts you. It was at that point things clicked for me. I didn't need this story as I had already lived through this dilemma. My family and I made the choice between selfishness and selflessness when we let my father go. We could have kept him alive with machines where he would have suffered and never recovered, but that would have been selfish. We made the difficult decision to let him go. We chose the lady. We chose to put aside our own feelings and keep our loved one from continued harm. That discussion in class took a lot of guilt off my shoulders about whether we made the right choice because love is selflessness. Love is letting go and doing what is best for your loved one. (Beatrice)

When I posted about The Dilemma at the beginning of the semester, I said that the princess would lead her lover to the door with the tiger behind that. After everything I have learned this semester, I want to change my answer and say that I think she would lead her lover to the door with another woman behind it. This semester I have learned a lot about virtues and finding the right balance of said virtues. When looking at the princess and her situation, taking the stance of her having some balancing virtues, it would make more sense for her to choose the door with the woman. Knowing that her lover would still be alive and possibly holding on to the hope of someday them reconnecting would be better than her knowing she made the decision to have him killed. I also think the princess’ decision would reflect a good example of courage. It would have taken a lot for her to make the decision to let him go be with another woman and not having him for herself. But I think a princess like herself would have been honest within and chosen the courageous route of having him live. (Elizabeth)

Analysis of the six students who changed their perspectives of the princess's decision found that five referenced course experiences in explanations of the reason for change. The in-class debriefing of the story early in the semester emphasized love as being a concept of selflessness or sacrificing oneself for another. This perspective contrasts with interpretations of love as a concept in which one desires another for self-enhancement, representing an act of objectification. The contrasting perspective views love as perceiving the other as an object or tool, rather valuing as a being with a story to be valued for itself.

Responses also indicated influences of learning about virtues and the sense of balance that they represent. Respondents who altered their interpretation viewed the story as an application of virtues and the discipline to resist selfish impulses may have been present.

Discussion

Recent literature laments the limited attention of social studies scholarship that examines specific emotions cultivated through social studies teaching (Helmsing, 2014; Sheppard et al., 2015). As Snarey and Samuelson (2008) point out the multidimensionality of Kohlberg's studies in moral development, we would encourage further research that examines student developmental contexts, their emotional dispositions and relationships to solving moral dilemmas. What prompted some students in this study to be open to the interpretation of love provided in the class and prevented others from doing so? Through the virtues, the students adapted new visions of the dilemma that sparked visions of empathetic outcomes, as explained by Bullough (2019).

The development of empathy in this study did not directly relate to an activity focused on culturally responsive teaching. Rather, it would seem that the explicit definition of love prompted students to rethink their conceptions of the topic. Yet, we believe that using studies, such as this, and examining the emotions that guide decision-making provides opportunities to (1) examine one's own sense of empathy, (2) discern the nature of love, and (3) how these understandings inform about attitudes and beliefs that relate to conversations about cultural awareness and sensitivity. Gorski and Pothini (2018) provide a treasure trove of case studies that could be used for this purpose. Although their book provides a model for examining these cases and professional considerations, we would suggest that a discussion about emotional influences on decision-making could well complement such processes.

We would encourage further research that interprets the outcomes of using discussion stories that present emotional dilemmas and how they may represent tools that prepare classrooms for conversations about more difficult social topics. Garrett and Kerr’s (2016) discussion of three explanations for successes using esthetic texts in social studies offers some direction. Their observation that “aesthetics deals with encounters beyond the self and the experiences of the world” (507) conveys the potential creation of deep and rich meanings through their use. The use of stories that require problem solving both strengthens the processes of critical thinking while engendering an openness to alternative perspectives.

This study interpreted student perspectives of the lady or the tiger dilemma and posed a definition of love; however, the course did not provide for a purposeful examination of the text and student reactions. We would encourage further study that interprets outcomes of deliberate examination of the proposed dilemma with student senses of identity to clarify these relationships.

We are curious about the respondent use of text clues to justify their reasoning and the extent to which it conveys the learning from their literacy courses or avoidance of the emotions that relate to the dilemma. Future studies may employ individual interviews or focus groups to probe the explanations for their thoughts.

The study of the virtues informed about the princess's dilemma. It did not inform about the students’ cultural biases and their influences on their choices. Ascertaining how such biases relate to applications of the virtues necessitates future studies that employ different dilemmas featuring different combinations of character traits and contexts.

Conclusions

The research study found that a significant number of students enrolled in a social studies methods course changed their solution to the lady or the tiger dilemma from the beginning to end of the semester. Students who changed their views identified learning the virtues presented in the course as the factor influencing their change in perspective.

This study identifies the patterns of responses and changes to a fictional dilemma at the beginning and ending of a social studies methods course. This paper contributes to social studies education research by adding to the literature that examines the presence of emotions in social studies teaching. It also informs about how both content and student background represent necessary elements for evoking change in student dispositions. Additional research needs to interpret the specific nature of these emotions and the psychological backgrounds of those influenced. Analyses of the emotional backpacks that students brought to the setting and how those dispositions affected their receptivity to presented content are absent in this paper. For example, did students who experienced core emotions related to aggression resist the presentation of virtues that encouraged openness and discipline and resist the reasons for perspective changes?

Most students who changed their perspectives attributed the change to their studies of the virtues. These observations would indicate that a traditional approach to teaching virtues, reinforced by supporting active learning experiences, offers potential for affecting student applications of the presented concepts. Social studies educators may consider the applications for teaching of citizenship virtues and the course conditions that support them. Particularly in a time of divisiveness, empathy represents a desirable citizenship trait. It may very well be worth the effort to take time and consider the door to which social studies educators direct their students.